Child Welfare and Protection in the Caribbean PDF

Child Welfare and Protection SOWK2006: Caribbean Social Issues Some slides courtesy of Olivene Thomas  Lecture Objectives At the end of this session, students should be able to:  Child: Definition  Overview child welfare system  Poverty and the child  General...

Child Welfare and Protection SOWK2006: Caribbean Social Issues Some slides courtesy of Olivene Thomas  Lecture Objectives At the end of this session, students should be able to:  Child: Definition  Overview child welfare system  Poverty and the child  General violence against children  Exploration of specific issues in Jamaica  Define types of child abuse  Discuss the effects of child abuse  Evaluate solutions posed for child abuse Child definition  Child: Every human being below the age of eighteen years (Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC)).  33% of Jamaican population are children under 18 years  20% are 0 to 14 years of age (Statista, 2023) Convention of the Rights of the Child (CRC), 1989); Statista, 2021 Modern child welfare system  According to Crawford-Brown, the child welfare system is based on the fact that:  the human child is unique and experiences a prolonged period of dependence on adult care, for support and guidance.  Guidance is provided by family, either both parents or one parent  If any family breakdown, care is provided by extended family members  When none of the above exist or there is break down,  Organized societal institutions in the form of care through child welfare systems are put in place  Goal is to provide alternative care Crawford-Brown, 1999, p. 3 Child Protection System (UN definition)  “Certain formal and informal structures, functions and capacities that have been assembled to prevent and respond to violence, abuse, neglect and exploitation of children.  Is generally agreed to be comprised of the following components: human resources, finance, laws and policies, governance, monitoring and data collection as well as protection and response services and care management.  It also includes different actors – children, families, communities, those working at sub-national or national level and those working internationally.  Most important are the relationships and interactions between and among these components and these actors within the system. It is the outcomes of these interactions that comprise the system.” (UNICEF Jamaica, p. 6) Child Protection System in Jamaica  The Government of Jamaica, through several ministries, departments and agencies (MDAs) and in collaboration with non-governmental organisations (NGOs) and international development partners including the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) Jamaica, works towards the protection of children in Jamaica.  The National Plan of Action for an Integrated Response to Children and Violence (NPACV, 2018-2023) is a joint effort by more than 20 government and civil society organisations which is led by the Ministry of Education and Youth and supported by UNICEF. The NPACV is underpinned by a holistic rights- based approach at both the national and local level. The purpose of this approach is to achieve the implementation of well-integrated systems which focus on children's rights, participation, prevention and protection at all levels. UNICEF (2022). Evaluation of Child Protection System in Jamaica Children living in poverty in Jamaica  The reality of Jamaica social welfare system:  15.7% of children currently living in poverty (UNICEF Jamaica, 2022)  1 out of 6 children living in poverty (2018)  Prevalence of extreme poverty among children = 4.3%  For adolescents = 4.1%  These number are higher than the national rate of 3.5%  COVID-19 has had long-lasting impact as well on these children and their families  80% of households with children reported a drop in income  Children’s levels of anxiety, fear, frustration and depression have increased as a result of the pandemic  NOTE: The gross national income per capita is $8,940 (2020). UNICEF (2022). Evaluation of Child Protection System in Jamaica Children living in poverty in Jamaica…  Child labor is prevalent –  38,000 children 5 through 17 involved in child labor (International Labour Organization, 2022)  10.6% of children 5 to 14 years  Exploitation of children often due to parents being unemployed  Children living on the streets  See Key Child Protection Indicators (p. 20) https://www.unicef.org/jamaica/media/4616/file/Evaluation%20of%20th %20Child%20Protection%20System%20in%20Jamaica.pdf (Jamaica Observer, ILO, 2022) Violence affecting children  “Violence is one of the most critical challenges affecting children in Jamaica”  Children exposed to high levels of all forms of violence (physical, emotional and sexual violence) in various settings including:  home, community, care and justice institutions, schools and online  Jamaica has the second-highest homicide rate in Latin America and the Caribbean: 49 deaths per 100,000 people (2019).  Risk factors associated with increase in violence include:  Normalization of violence in society  Low education attainment  Youth unemployment  Discriminatory practices affecting women and girls and social exclusion  Law enforcement capacity needs  Most common form of violence experienced by children is legally permissible violent discipline at home by parents and caregivers (85 percent of children) UNICEF (2022). Evaluation of Child Protection System in Jamaica  Risk factors cannot be seen in isolation Factors influence each other Exploration of specific issues in Jamaica Specific issues around children using Wright and Weiss criteria: Is it a problem? Wright and Weiss (1980) suggest that there are five criteria or characteristics that should be used to define a social problem:  The conditions must be observable-seen, reported or discussed.  There should be an analysis of the condition-people should be thinking about what they have seen, etc.  Solvability-members of the society should feel that the problem can be solved  Active Involvement of those who can influence others  Organized Efforts (successful or not) to deal with the problem/issue. Issue 1: Child Abuse The Office of the Children’s Registry in Jamaica defines child abuse as follows: Child abuse is any act, or failure to act, on the part of a parent or caretaker, which results in death, serious physical or emotional harm, sexual abuse, or exploitation of a child. Any act, or failure to act, which presents an imminent risk of serious harm to a child also counts as child abuse. Harm is any detrimental effect of a significant nature on the child’s physical, psychological or emotional wellbeing. Types of Child Abuse There are four (4) types of child abuse:  physical  sexual  emotional  neglect. Child Abuse in Jamaica  Approximately 80% of Jamaican children experience some form of psychological or physical violence administered as discipline  64.9% bullied at school  79% witness violence in their community or at home  Consistent increase in child abuse  Girls account for a higher percent of child abused cases  Example, in 2016, 97.3% of the 1,094 reports received were girls  Abuse occur in the home, school, and communities  UNICEF, 2018 What Causes Child Abuse ?  Many things that can cause child abuse.  The reasons are often complex, and there’s no single or simple explanation. Causes of child abuse can include:  Isolation and lack of support — no family members, friends, partners or community support to help with the demands of parenting  Stress — financial pressures, job worries, medical problems or caring for a family member with a disability  Unrealistic expectations — a lack of understanding about a child’s developmental stages and behaviour  Intellectual disability or mental illness — parents may be unable to adequately care for their child What Causes Child Abuse ?  Lack of parenting skills — parents may not know how to care for their child or may believe it is acceptable to use excessive physical force to discipline or punish a child.  Drug, alcohol or gambling problems — addiction or substance abuse may affect a parent’s ability to meet their child’s needs  Low self-confidence — parents may doubt their ability to meet their child’s needs and find it hard asking for help  Past childhood experiences — parents may have experienced abuse as a child in their own families, which could have caused them to develop an insecure attachment style  Mental health problems. Effects of Child Abuse ?  Harm experienced in childhood can have significant and lasting effects and children can respond differently to what has occurred.  Drug, alcohol or gambling problems — addiction or substance abuse may affect a parent’s ability to meet their child’s needs.  Children may experience a range of emotional, psychological and physical problems as a result of being harmed, including:  low self esteem  increased fear, guilt and self-blame  distrust of adults or difficulty forming relationships with others Effects of Child Abuse ?  disrupted attachments with those who are meant to keep them safe  mental health disorders such as anxiety, attachment, post-traumatic stress and depression disorders  self-harming or suicidal thoughts.  Currently 0.6% disability adjustment life years due to suicide in Jamaica  Suicide rate for the total population is 26% or 9.2% per 100,000  Accounts for 0.6% disability adjustment life years compared to other Caribbean Islands Note examples of two Jamaican studies in the next slide: https://jamaica-gleaner.com/article/news/20230808/jamaicas-suicide-count-jumps-26- 2022#:~:text=More%20Jamaicans%20are%20committing%20suicide,average%20of%209.2%2 0per%20100%2C000. Case Examples: Self-harming or suicidal thoughts examples  NB: The incidence for suicide among Jamaican adolescents (aged 9 – 19) was 1.1 per 100 000 during 2007 - 2010. Rates for males were significantly higher than females. Most suicide cases were students and the majority of cases was from rural areas (65%). Hanging was the main method used to commit suicide (96.2%). Items of clothing were commonly used for this purpose.  A cross-sectional study of 342 adolescents aged 10–19 years from 19 schools. Multivariate analysis showed that a history of self-violence, violent thoughts toward others, mental health diagnoses other than depression, and a history of sexual abuse were positively associated with suicide attempt. Sexual abuse, mental health diagnoses other than depression, self-violence, and ease of access to lethal substances/weapons were positively associated with suicide ideation. We found a relatively high prevalence of suicide ideation and suicide attempts among adolescents living in Western Jamaica. An accurate understanding of the prevailing risk factors for suicide attempts will promote a more sympathetic approach to victims and facilitate prevention efforts. Effects of Child Abuse ?  learning disorders, including poor language and cognitive development  developmental delay, eating disorders and physical ailments  permanent physical injuries or death  violent, aggressive or criminal behaviour or other behavioural problems  drug and alcohol abuse and high-risk sexual behaviour. Child Abuse - Solvability?  What are your thoughts?  Have there been active Involvement of those who can influence others around this issue?  Have there been organized efforts (successful or not) to deal with the problem/issue? Issue 2: Kidnapping and Abduction What is Kidnapping?  The terms abduction and kidnapping are sometimes used interchangeably.  At common law, kidnapping consisted of the forcible abduction or stealing or carrying away of a person from one’s own country to another.  Kidnapping is the taking away of a person by force, threat, or deceit, with intent to cause him or her to be detained against his or her will.  Kidnapping is the taking or detention of a person against his or her will and without lawful authority.  Kidnapping may be done for ransom or for political or other purposes.  Abduction is the criminal taking away a person by persuasion, by fraud, or by open force or violence.  Although, abduction and kidnapping were considered separate and independent crimes, they are not always mutually exclusive.  Abduction is the unlawful interference with a family relationship, such as the taking of a child from its parent, irrespective of whether the person abducted consents or not. What is Abduction?   Intense interest in disturbing child abductions Responses to Child Abduction - USA by the mass media, public safety organizations, and the public has helped sustain a socially constructed mythology and sporadic “moral panic” about the presumed pervasiveness of this threat to children.  Socially constructed public perception of the threat posed by stranger-predators that is out of proportion to the actual frequency of this type of crime (Finkelhor, Hammer, & Sedlak, 2002; Flores, 2002; Kappeler & Potter, 2005 cited in Griffin and Miller, 2008, p. 159.)  Policy makers have hastily enacted several “memorial crime control” policies (Surette, 2007) that critics say are often wasteful, pointlessly harsh, or even counterproductive.  These have included sex offender registration and notification requirements, repeat violent offender statutes like “three- Responses to Child strikes-and-you’re-out” sentencing laws, and extremely harsh penalty enhancements for sex offenders. Abduction – USA during 2000s  Another example is the America’s Missing Broadcast Emergency Response (AMBER) Alert system, which is designed to interrupt serious child kidnappings in progress by soliciting citizen tips to help officials quickly rescue victims.  Inspired by the belief that rapid response time in menacing kid napping cases can save a child’s life, AMBER Alerts are public announcements about missing children or their suspected captors that can elicit tips from citizens in time for officials to make a life-saving response (Zgoba, 2004a cited in Griffin and Miller, 2008). Responses to Child Abduction - USA  AMBER Alert has not achieved and  It is a socially constructed “solution” probably cannot achieve the to a socially constructed problem, ambitious goals that inspired its enabling public officials to creation. symbolically address an essentially intractable threat.  AMBER Alert is arguably an example of what could be called  AMBER Alert exemplifies how crime crime control theater. That is, a control theater can create public response or set of responses unintended problems, such as to crime which generate the public backlash when the theatrical appearance, but not the fact, of policy fails and a distorted public crime control. discourse about the nature of crime. (Griffin & Miller, 2008) Responses to Child Abduction - USA  AMBER Alerts usually only “work” when relatively little risk is posed (e.g., when the child is abducted by an immediate family member) and are least likely to be successful in the “stereotypical” abduction cases for which they were designed.  Unfortunately, the AMBER Alert system is based on dubious assumptions about what “causes” an abducted child to survive and what sort of “solutions” to this category of crime are feasible.  Ananda Alert System is Jamaica's Child Recovery Strategy which was modeled off the Amber Alert System in the United States of America (USA).  According to the Ananda Alert Policy document (2008): "there has been a steady spate of child Ananda Alert abductions that ultimately led to murder." Response to Child Abduction -  The Constabulary Communication Network (CCN), reports that between January 1 and Jamaica September 30, 2008, 737 children were reported missing (177 males and 560 females).  519 were returned, with over 200 still missing.  Two murders have been confirmed, with one unconfirmed.  Responses to Child Abduction - Jamaica  These horrendous occurrences culminated with the much publicized murder of Ananda Dean which triggered the Department of Local Government in the Office of the Prime Minister, in conjunction with the Association of Local Government Authorities of Jamaica (ALGAJ) - the representative body for the island's 14 Local Authorities, including the KSAC and the Portmore Municipal Council - to offer its support in the form of a partnership with law enforcement, through the Jamaica Constabulary Force (JCF), in setting up an Amber Alert type system across the island.“  This system, which replaces the Red Alert, was named after Ananda Dean, who was abducted and subsequently murdered, is aimed at mobilizing public and private sectors, civil society and communities to work with law enforcement to assist in the speedy and safe recovery of missing children. Jamaica https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9iO78QAFT9E  The GOJ’s measures adopted to ensure respect for the responsibilities, rights and duties of parents and extended families or community.  Enactment of the “Children’s (Custody and Guardianship) Act, giving the court authority to act “with regard to the welfare of the child as the first and paramount consideration” when deciding issues relevant to “the upbringing of the child”.  The enactment of Juveniles Act, Section 9:2a – charging parents with responsibility to provide food, clothing, medical [and] lodging”. This is complemented by the Maintenance Act and the Education Act. The Juveniles Act also seeks to protect children from abuse/maltreatment. Jamaican Laws  The establishment of Public Agencies – The Family Court for administering the Children’s (Custody and Guardianship) Act; the Children’s Services, with statutory responsibility for working with cases of children who are “in need of care and protection or are beyond parental control”  Laws as they currently exist, provide a basis for the physical and moral protection of children.  However, as stated in the government’s Initial Report, “The intent of legislation is frustrated by [many] difficulties”.  The laws are not being enforced.  Children, have expressed a lack of confidence in the level of protection that the Jamaican law provides.  Some children interviewed stated that they do not trust members of the law enforcement agencies. Jamaican Laws  They provided examples in which the police have been disrespectful and abusive to children who have sought their help.  The National Children's Registry (NCR) was established as a provision of the Child Care and Protection Act 2004 (CCPA) and began operations on January 1, 2007 as the Office of the Children’s Registry.  Operating within the Child Protection & Family Services Agency (CPFSA), the NCR is a central point for the recording, assessment and referral of reports that are made by persons who know or suspect that a child is being or is at risk of being abused, neglected or otherwise in need of care Jamaican Data and protection.  A total of 96,345 reports were made to the NCR during the period 2007 – 2017. Next couple slides show case examples from 2007-2017 Statistics on the number of reports represent children who were alleged victims of physical abuse, sexual abuse, emotional abuse, neglect, trafficking or child labour. They also include children who were reported to exhibit behavioural problems or who were otherwise in need of care and protection.  A feature of many of the reports received by the OCR is the occurrence of two or more forms of abuse against children.  Thus, the figures shown (if disaggregated by the type of abuse) reflect the incidence of each category and may not add to the total number of reports or the total number of children of whom reports were made. Jamaican Data Issue 3: Neglect  Neglect is any serious disregard for a child's supervision, care, or discipline.  It includes the failure of a caregiver to provide for a child's basic needs, abandonment and exposing a child to danger.  Neglect happens when a child's basic needs are not met, affecting their health and development.  Basic needs includes food, housing and clean-living conditions, health care, adequate clothing, attention to personal hygiene and adequate supervision.  2021-2022  4,530 cases of child neglect were filed in 2021 to the National Children’s Registry (NCR) Neglect  Statistics for reports of Neglect in Jamaica 2007 - 2017: Physical Abuse  Physical abuse is any act or failure to act that leads to the non-accidental, physical harm of a child or that places the child's physical well-being at risk. It includes, but is not limited to, beating, burning, choking, kicking, punching, harmful restraint and the use of a weapon or instrument. Physical Abuse Physical abuse happens when a Physical abuse does not always child has been hurt or injured, and it leave visible marks or injuries. is not an accident.  shaking  hitting  smothering  choking  poisoning  throwing  burning  biting  using physical restraints. Sexual Abuse  Sexual abuse involves engaging or enticing a child to engage in any form of sexual activity, with or without the child's knowledge or approval.  Child sexual abuse happens when an adult, teenager or child uses their power or authority to involve another child in sexual activity. Emotional Abuse  Emotional abuse is the expression of words, attitudes or behaviours toward a child that create serious emotional or psychological damage. Causes of Emotional Abuse Emotional abuse can be caused by:  rejection  name calling, teasing or bullying  yelling  criticism  isolation or locking a child up for extended periods  exposure to domestic and family violence. Causes of Emotional Abuse Experiencing domestic and family violence can also lead to emotional harm. A child who experiences violence at home is at greater risk of not having their basic needs met, including their protection and care needs. Domestic and family violence can affect a child’s emotional wellbeing and development, teach them that violence is a solution to problems, and cause post- traumatic stress disorder. Child Trafficking  Child trafficking is the recruitment, transportation, transfer, harboring or receipt of a child by means of threat or use of force, abduction, fraud, deception, or abuse of power.  Individuals who are cast out of their homes, abandoned, or placed into the child welfare system are highly vulnerable to human trafficking.  Runaways, youth experiencing homelessness, and those who live in isolation are often targeted.  When someone feels alone or unloved or has been abused in the past, they may be willing to take great risks.  They may feel as though they have little to lose or may even find comfort living with their trafficker. Jamaican Data  Sex trafficking of Jamaican women and children, including boys, reportedly occurs on streets and in nightclubs, bars, massage parlors, hotels, and private homes, including in resort towns.  Communities vulnerable to sex trafficking and forced labour include young women and children from poor households, child victims of sexual abuse, homeless LGBTQI+ youth, residents of Jamaica’s poverty- stricken areas effectively controlled by criminal “dons,” migrant workers, and workers in the informal sector, particularly on family farms and in markets and shops.  Traffickers subject children and adults to forced begging and women and children to domestic servitude. Jamaican Data  Girls, sometimes coerced by family members, are subjected to sex trafficking by men who provide monetary or material payment to the girls or their families in exchange for sex acts; local observers report this form of child sex trafficking may be widespread in some communities.  Children from rural Jamaica, and possibly from other Caribbean countries, who are sent to live with more affluent family members or acquaintances sometimes become exploited in forced labor in private households, markets, or shops. Jamaican Data Child Labour  Child labour relates to any work that is mentally, physically, socially or morally dangerous and harmful to children and interferes with their schooling. Children Who Exhibit Behavioural Problems  Children who exhibit behavioural problems refer to children who are uncontrollable and who consistently get involved in various types of trouble. Children in Need of Care and Protection  Children who exhibit behavioural problems refer to children who are uncontrollable and who consistently get involved in various types of trouble. Missing Children – Jamaica -2007 – 2015  A total of 70,479 reports were made to the OCR during the period 2007 – 2015. Solving the Problem of Child Harm Forming coalitions with Addressing the willing e.g. poverty and the Coalition for economic Better Opportunities deprivation Parenting, and for Children’s the Roving Legal voices to be Caregivers framework to heard. programme support the Sensitize and Family Convention on educate the counselling & the Rights of public Parental the Child regarding education causes, signs especially for and actions to young fathers be taken. about child- rearing practices. Solving the Problem of Child Harm What is your solution? Teach children their rights and Reporting responsibilities. suspected Stop cases of patronizing abuse. Attempts to establishments achieve that employ children will a better balance stop child of ensuring the labour. safety of the child, meeting the child’s developmental needs, and supporting family functioning  Sources  Crawford-Brown, C. (1999). Who will save our children: The plight of Jamaican child in the 90’s. Canoe Press University of the West Indies, Kingston, Jamaica.  Convention of the Rights of the Child (CRC): General Assembly Resolution 44/25 (1989)  Griffin, T and Miller, M.K. (2008). Child Abduction, AMBER Alert, and Crime Control Theater. Criminal Justice Review Volume 33 Number 2, p. 159-176 10.1177/0734016808316778  Houston, C. (7/2022). Child labor’s growing concern in Jamaica. The Jamaican Observer. https://www.jamaicaobserver.com/news/child- labours-growing-concern-in-jamaica/  UNICEF (6/2022) Evaluation of child protection system in Jamaica. https://www.unicef.org/jamaica/media/4616/file/Evaluation%20of%20the%20Child%20Protection%20Sys tem%20in%20Jamaica.pdf