Social Psychology Key Figures & Theories PDF

3 KEY FIGURES OF SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY AND THEIR THEORIES Social psychology is the study of the impact social forces has on how people think, feel, and act. Our perceptions of ourselves in relation to the rest of the world influence our decisions, behaviors, and beliefs. In turn, the opinions or even t...

3 KEY FIGURES OF SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY AND THEIR THEORIES Social psychology is the study of the impact social forces has on how people think, feel, and act. Our perceptions of ourselves in relation to the rest of the world influence our decisions, behaviors, and beliefs. In turn, the opinions or even the mere presence of others influence our behavior and how we perceive ourselves. Social Psychology vs Sociology The disciplines of social psychology and sociology are frequently confused. This is evident as both fields of study are concerned with the ways in which human behavior shapes and is shaped by society and social interaction. The major difference between them is that: Social psychology studies individual behavior in relation to the group or the society, whereas Sociology is the study of group behavior and functioning in relation to society. 1. KURT LEWIN (1890-1947) A German American Psychologist. Kurt Lewin was one of the most influential social psychologists and is also widely regarded as the father of modern social psychology. He initially studied behaviorism, but later became interested in Gestalt psychology. His work on group dynamics, experiential learning, and action research approach had a huge impact on the evolution of social psychology. Kurt Lewin’s Field Theory: Lewin developed a theory influenced by Gestalt psychology that emphasized the importance of individual personalities, interpersonal conflict, and situational factors. According to Lewin’s Field Theory, human behavior is the direct result of both the individual characteristics and the environment they live in. We are not just beings who act from internal impulses. Instead, we are greatly influenced by our surroundings. This theory had a significant impact on social psychology. Lewin’s field theory then led to the development of actual field research on human behavior. Lewin’s Leadership Styles (1939): A group of researchers led by psychologist Kurt Lewin set out to identify different leadership styles. They studied the schoolchildren and observed their behavior around three specific types of a leader. The result of the study found a democratic leader to be the most effective one. This early study was remarkably influential in establishing three major leadership styles, which have served as a launching pad for more defined leadership theories. Authoritarian Leadership (Autocratic) - viewed as controlling and dictatorial. They expect obedience and fully take the responsibility for the decision-making. Best for situations where rapid and decisive actions are required. Participative Leadership (Democratic) - found to be the most effective style. Prefers group engagement, open communication, and input from the members, however, the final say remains in the hand of the leader.  Delegative Leadership (Laissez-Faire) - works well where the team members are experts and need little or no guidance or direction. It is a hands-ofaf approach. The decision-making is up to the members who do not need to be micromanaged. 2. SOLOMON ASCH (1907-1996) A Polish American Psychologist. Solomon Asch is widely regarded as an influential figure of social psychology and Gestalt psychology. He earned his master’s degree from Columbia University and was supervised by another pioneer of psychology, Max Wertheimer. He had supervised Stanley Milgram and influenced his landmark research on obedience. In the 1950s Asch conducted a series of experiments on studying conformity demonstrating the power of social influence which continued to inspire social psychology researchers even today. Asch’s work on social influence, group behavior, peer pressure, and behavior change are among the major contributions to social psychology. Asch conformity experiments: Conformity, in psychology, refers to an individual’s strong tendency to follow the unspoken rules or behaviors of the social group to which they belong. Asch was curious about how group pressure could lead people to conform even when they knew the rest of the group was wrong. The Asch conformity experiment was designed to demonstrate the power of conformity in groups. As a result of the experiments, it was found: Conformity tends to increase with the increase in the number of people present. As the difficulty of the task increases the tendency to conform also increases. Conformity increases when other members of the group are of a higher social status. 3. Leon Festinger (1919-1989) An American social psychologist. Leon Festinger has contributed to two key theories of social psychology- social comparison theory and cognitive dissonance. Festinger was also a student of Kurt Lewin and worked as his research associate. Festinger and his colleagues also wrote a book called, When Prophecy Fails, a classic text of social psychology studying cognitive dissonance. It is about a small cult holding the belief that the end of the world was near. The book looks at the effects when someone’s beliefs are proven false by facts. Festinger noticed that even when apocalypse predictions turn out to be false, group members were not discouraged rather they believed that it is their prophecies that had stopped it from happening. Social Comparison Theory: Social comparison theory was developed by Leon Festinger in 1954, it is a human tendency to make comparisons between us and others. People assess their own personal and social worth and evaluate their actions, accomplishments, and opinions by comparing themselves to others. Festinger believed that we engage in this comparison process to establish a standard against which we can make accurate assessments of ourselves. Upward Social Comparison: comparing ourselves with those who are better than us to improve our current state. Downward Social Comparison: comparing ourselves with those who are worse than us to make us feel better about ourselves. COGNITIVE DISSONANCE The American Psychological Association (APA) defines cognitive dissonance as “an unpleasant psychological state resulting from inconsistency between two or more elements in a cognitive system.“ The difference between what people believe and how they eventually behave causes discomfort. It not only affects how you feel, but it also motivates you to take action to relieve your discomfort. For example – you want to cut down your screen time, but you start your morning by looking at your phone first thing in the morning, hence it gives you a guilty feeling. So, you either change the behavior or look out for reasonable ways to reduce the discomfort feeling altogether. Allport, Floyd Henry 1890 – 1978 Floyd Allport is considered a founder of experimental social psychology, in part for his theoretical rigor and emphasis on measurement, and in part for his popular 1924 textbook Social Psychology, which went through 13 editions over the ensuing 50 years. Gordon Willard Allport 1897 - 1967 Gordon Allport, younger brother of Floyd Allport, conducted pioneering research on attitudes, prejudice, religion, and rumor transmission, among other topics. In addition to training prominent psychologists such as Stanley Milgram, Thomas Pettigrew, Jerome Bruner, and Anthony Greenwald, he helped establish the field of personality psychology. Solomon Asch 1907 - 1996 Solomon Asch is best known for laboratory studies on conformity showing that under certain circumstances, a large percentage of people will conform to a majority position even when the position is clearly incorrect. He also published seminal studies on the primacy effect and halo effect, and helped inspire Stanley Milgram's research on obedience to authority. Roger William Brown 1925 - 1997 Roger Brown wrote the acclaimed 1965 textbook Social Psychology, which played a central role in training a generation of social psychologists. He also made important contributions in psycholinguistics and cognitive psychology, studying topics such as language acquisition, flashbulb memories, and the tip of the tongue phenomenon. Donald Thomas Campbell 1916 - 1996 Donald T. Campbell was a social psychologist and research methodologist who coauthored some of the most frequently cited methodology books and articles ever published. In addition to this work, he served as President of the American Psychological Association and contributed to several fields beyond psychology, including sociology, anthropology, biology, and philosophy. Kenneth Bancroft Clark 1914 - 2005 Kenneth Clark and his wife Mamie conducted research suggesting that Black children preferred to play with White dolls, a result that the U.S. Supreme Court later cited as evidence that segregation "generates a feeling of inferiority... that may affect the childrens' hearts and minds." He was also the first African American to be elected President of the American Psychological Association. Mamie Phipps Clark 1917 - 1983 Mamie Clark completed a master’s thesis that provided the foundation for studies she and her husband Kenneth published on the harmful effects of racial segregation. The U.S. Supreme Court cited these studies in Brown v. Board of Education, a landmark case banning racial segregation in public education. Leon Festinger 1919 - 1989 Leon Festinger developed the theory of cognitive dissonance, a motivational theory suggesting that people seek to minimize discomfort caused by inconsistent beliefs and behaviors. He also developed social comparison theory, devised several of the earliest nonparametric statistical tests, and documented the key role of proximity in social relationships. Fritz Heider 1896 - 1988 Fritz Heider was an Austrian-born Gestalt psychologist whose work helped give rise to the field of social cognition. His best known book, The Psychology of Interpersonal Relations, was published in 1958 and was highly influential in the development of attribution theory. Evelyn Hooker 1907 - 1996 Evelyn Hooker was the first social scientist to study the psychosocial adjustment of gay men outside hospital or prison settings. Her results showed no difference between gay and heterosexual men, challenging antigay stereotypes and eventually leading the American Psychiatric Association to remove homosexuality from its diagnostic manual of mental disorders. Carl I. Hovland 1912 - 1961 Carl Hovland conducted pathbreaking research on attitude change, propaganda, and persuasion, including studies of the sleeper effect, source credibility, two-sided persuasive appeals, and contrast effects. Later in his career, he also investigated symbolic processes and computer simulations of human thought. Irving Janis 1918 - 1990 Irving Janis carried out studies on attitude change, stress, and decision making, but his best known research was on groupthink, which he defined as "a mode of thinking that people engage in when they are deeply involved in a cohesive in-group, when the members' strivings for unanimity override their motivation to realistically appraise alternative courses of action." Gustave Le Bon 1841 - 1931 Gustave Le Bon was a French social scientist who wrote about the psychology of crowds and the "collective mind," which he described as a "single being" more primitive and suggestible than the individuals who comprise it. His views on crowd behavior and inherited racial characteristics helped lay the foundation for fascist ideologies later promulgated by Hitler. Kurt Lewin 1890 - 1947 Kurt Lewin was an early leader of group dynamic research and is regarded by many as the founder of modern social psychology. Lewin's Equation, B=f(P,E), stipulates that behavior is a function of the person and environment, and he advocated "action research" applying this equation and scientific methods to address social problems such as prejudice and group conflict. William McDougall 1871 - 1938 William McDougall cofounded the British Psychological Society in 1901 and published one of the first social psychology textbooks, An Introduction to Social Psychology (1908). He opposed behaviorism, believing instead that human behavior could be explained by instincts, and was controversial for his views on eugenics and inherited racial differences. Stanley Milgram 1933 - 1984 Stanley Milgram is famous for a set of studies suggesting that most people will obey an experimenter's order to administer potentially deadly levels of electric shock to a protesting stranger. He also invented several research techniques unrelated to obedience, such as the lost-letter technique, cyranoid technique, and small-world ("six degrees of separation") technique. Maximilien Ringelmann 1861 - 1931 Maximilien Ringelmann was a French agricultural engineer who, in the 1880s, conducted some of the first experiments in social psychology. These experiments showed that individual members of a group often become less productive as the size of their group increases -- a phenomenon referred to as the "Ringelmann effect" and now better known as social loafing. Stanley Schachter 1922 - 1997 Stanley Schachter became well known in the 1950s for developing the "two-factor theory of emotion," which posits that emotions are a joint result of physiological arousal and a cognitive interpretation of that arousal. He also researched a wide range of other phenomena, including cognitive dissonance, misattribution, overeating, and addiction. Carolyn Wood Sherif 1922 - 1982 Carolyn Wood Sherif and her husband, Muzafer Sherif, conducted the "Robber's Cave" experiment (see below) and worked with Carl Hovland to develop social judgment theory, an influential theory about how and when attitude change takes place. She also studied gender identity, social values, and group dynamics, and served as President of the Society for the Psychology of Women. Muzafer Sherif 1906 - 1988 Muzafer Sherif was a Turkish-born social psychologist who, with his wife Carolyn, conducted the Robber's Cave experiment in which boys at a summer camp were divided into two rivil groups and ultimately overcame fierce intergroup hostility after working toward superordinate goals. He also studied norm formation, attitude change, and many other topics. Francis Cecil Sumner 1895 - 1954 Francis Cecil Sumner was the first African American to receive a Ph.D. in psychology, which he earned from Clark University in 1920. He was an official abstractor for Psychological Bulletin and the Journal of Social Psychology, established an independent psychology program at Howard University, and is widely credited as founding the field of Black psychology. Henri Tajfel 1919 - 1982 Henri Tajfel devised the "minimal group paradigm" in which intergroup relations are studied after arbitrarily dividing experimental participants into groups on the basis of minimally important characteristics. Consistent with social identity theory (co-developed with his student John Turner), he documented that even minimal groups readily form identities and exhibit ingroup favoritism. Norman Triplett 1861 - 1931 Norman Triplett published one of the first experiments related to social psychology. The report, appearing in the American Journal of Psychology in 1898, compared how fast children wound a reel when alone and in competiton with another child. He concluded that the presence of another contestant "serves to liberate latent energy not ordinarily available." KEY THEORIES IN SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY Social Comparison Theory (Festinger, 1954): This theory suggests that people learn about their own abilities, attitudes, and worth by comparing themselves to others. It explains how individuals evaluate themselves in relation to others, which can influence self-esteem, motivation, and social identity. Cognitive Dissonance Theory (Festinger, 1957): Cognitive dissonance occurs when a person experiences psychological discomfort due to conflicting beliefs, attitudes, or behaviors. To reduce this discomfort, individuals are motivated to change one or more of the conflicting elements, justify their behavior, or ignore the conflict. This theory is key to understanding attitude change and decision-making processes. Social Identity Theory (Tajfel & Turner, 1979): This theory explains how individuals define themselves based on their group memberships (e.g., nationality, religion, team). It emphasizes that people derive self-esteem from their social identity and may exhibit in-group favoritism and out-group discrimination to maintain a positive self-concept. Theory of Planned Behavior (Ajzen, 1991): This theory proposes that an individual's intention to engage in a behavior is determined by their attitude towards the behavior, subjective norms (perceived social pressures), and perceived behavioral control (belief in one's ability to perform the behavior). It is widely used to predict and understand deliberate actions, especially in health, marketing, and environmental behavior. Attribution Theory (Heider, 1958; Kelley, 1967): Attribution theory explores how people explain the causes of behavior and events. Individuals may attribute behavior to internal dispositions (personality traits) or external situations. Kelley's covariation model further suggests that people make attributions based on consensus (others' behavior), consistency (behavior across time), and distinctiveness (behavior across different situations). Social Learning Theory (Bandura, 1977): Social learning theory posits that people learn behaviors through observation, imitation, and modeling. It highlights the role of observational learning, reinforcement, and punishment in shaping behavior. The theory is fundamental in understanding how social behaviors, such as aggression and prosocial actions, are acquired. Minority Influence Theory (Moscovici, 1980): This theory argues that a small group (minority) can influence the majority's attitudes and behaviors, particularly when the minority is consistent, confident, and perceived as flexible. It is crucial in understanding how social change occurs, such as shifts in societal norms and acceptance of new ideas. Social Representations Theory (Moscovici, 1961): Social representations are shared beliefs and understandings within a group or society. This theory explores how groups collectively create and communicate meanings to make sense of the social world. It is particularly relevant in the study of cultural norms, media influence, and public opinion. Cultural Frame of Reference (Markus & Kitayama, 1991): This concept emphasizes that individuals’ thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are shaped by their cultural context. For example, in Asian cultures, social harmony and collectivism are prioritized, whereas in Western cultures, individualism and personal achievement are emphasized. This theory helps explain cultural variations in social behavior. Indigenous Psychology (Enriquez, 1976): In the context of Filipino psychology (Sikolohiyang Pilipino), this approach focuses on using native concepts and cultural practices to understand social behavior. Key values like hiya (shame), utang na loob (debt of gratitude), and pakikisama (smooth interpersonal relationships) provide a framework for understanding social dynamics in Filipino culture. These theories collectively offer a comprehensive understanding of how social factors influence human thought, emotion, and behavior, emphasizing the interplay between individual characteristics and social context SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY WHAT IS SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY? Social Psychology is the scientific study of the feelings, thoughts, and behaviors of individuals in social situations. It studies how individuals relate to the social contexts they live in, particularly their everyday interactions with others. Another theme in social psychology is that individuals actively construe or interpret social situations (Jones, 1998). Social Psychology seeks “to understand and explain how the thought, feeling, and behavior of individuals are influenced by the actual, imagined, or implied presence of others” (Allport, 1985, p. 3) SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY VS. RELATED DISCIPLINES Psychologists often use the personal or individual level of analyzing human behavior. Personality psychology, for instance, stresses individual differences in behavior, traits, and dispositions. Cognitive psychology, on the other hand, studies how people think, perceive, and remember. The focus of Social Psychology is on the social nature of the individual or how people think, feel, and act in relation to others, or in social situations. FRAMES OF SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY (American, European, and Asian) 1. North American Social Psychology - Social Thinking (the self, social beliefs, and judgments; behavior and attitudes); - Social Influence (genes, culture, and gender; conformity; persuasion; group influence); - Social Relations (prejudice, aggression, attraction, helping, conflict, and peacemaking). Social Comparison Theory According to the social comparison theory, we learn about our own abilities and attitudes by comparing ourselves with other people (Festinger, 1954) Cognitive Dissonance According to Leo Festlinger (1957), a person may experience psychological discomfort, or dissonance, when there are inconsistencies between one’s cognitions, which may be attitudes, beliefs, and behavior. Psychology of Attitudes The concept of attitude is probably the most distinctive and indispensable concept in American social psychology (Allport, 1935). In fact, social psychology was once defined as the study of attitudes (Fazio & Olsen, 2007). An attitude is a psychological tendency that is expressed by evaluating a particular object with some degree of favor or disfavor, like or dislike (Eagly & Chaike, 1998). 2. European Social Psychology -Social Identity theory -Social Representations -Minority Influence 3. Asian Social Psychology Asian social psychology has been branded as “cultural” in the sense that European social psychology is seen as “Societal” and American social psychology as “individual.” Contributions of Asian social psychologists are generally in these areas: indigenous research, culture and social behavior, and specific topics in social psychology. PSYCHOLOGY IN THE PHILIPPINES Like many other Third World countries in the second half of the twentieth century, the Philippines imported almost all of its psychological knowledge from the First World, and social psychology is no exception. Social psychology along with industrial psychology became new areas of research interest in the 1970s (Licuanan, 1985). Theses on topics such as attribution, social perception, communication, decision making, attitude change, altruism, stereotypes, reference groups, and language emerged during this decade when Martial Law was declared in the Philippines. I. The Psychology born out of the experience, thought, and orientation of the Filipinos based on the full use of Filipino culture and language. VIRGILIO G. ENRIQUEZ is the proponent of Sikolohiyang Pilipino. He was known for having strong attachment to Filipino thus he searched the Filipino culture and history for the bases of Sikolohiyang Pilipino instead of tracing these back to Western theories. Enriquez’s Kapwa Model focuses on hiya(propriety/dignity), utang na loob (gratitude/solidarity), and pakikisama (companionship/esteem) in studies of Filipino personality and Filipino values. He described these values as accommodative surface values that surface values that support an image of the Filipino as subservient or accommodating (in relation to the colonizer). II. Indigenous Concepts of Filipino Social Reality HIYA is tied to a need to be accepted by others. The fear or anxiety of losing support or approval requires one to be sensitive to others. A friend may not tell you that you have bad breath out of hiya. UTANG NA LOOB, when a person gives gift, the recipient of the gift is obligated to give back, or repay, the gift in the future. Receiving a gift implies incurring an obligation, or a debt; hence debt of gratitude, or obligation, are walang utang na loob (ungrateful) PAKIKISAMA as a mean for maintaining smooth interpersonal relations. Pakikisama, meaning to go along with or to give in, is observed by going along with the group or the majority, that is, conformity (Pe-pua & Protacio Marcelino, 2000) KAPWA, if one is categorized as one-of-us, or regarded as hindi ibang tao, interaction occurs at the deeper levels of pakikipagpalagayang-loob (being-in-rapport/understanding/acceptance with), or pakikisangkot (getting involved with), or pakikiisa (being one with), which is the highest level of interaction (Santiango & Enriquez, 1976) PAKIKIRAMDAM the key of interpersonal process that allows Filipinos to sense what the other is feeling and know when it is appropiate to practice hiya, utang na loob, and pakikisama. Pakikiramdam is the pivotal value of shared inner perception. Self-concept is the image we have of ourselves. It is influenced by many forces, including our interaction with the important people in our lives. It is how we perceive our behaviors, abilities, and unique characteristics.1 For example, beliefs such as "I am a good friend" or "I am a kind person" are part of an overall self-concept. Other examples of self-concept include: How you view your personality traits, such as whether you are an extrovert or introvert How you see your roles in life, such as whether you feel that being a parent, sibling, friend, and partner are important parts of your identity The hobbies or passions that are important to your sense of identity, such as being a sports enthusiast or belonging to a particular political party or religious group How you feel about your interactions with the world, such as whether you think that you are contributing to society Our self-perception is important because it affects our motivations, attitudes, and behaviors. It also affects how we feel about the person we think we are, including whether we are competent or have self-worth.2 Self-concept tends to be more malleable when we're younger and still going through self-discovery and identity formation. As we age and learn who we are and what's important to us, these self-perceptions become much more detailed and organized. Humanist psychologist Carl Rogers believed that self-concept is made up of three distinct parts: ideal self, self-image, and self-esteem. His theory explains what it means when these parts are congruent or incongruent with reality that impacts your self-concept. Three Parts of Self-Concept Rogers described the self-concept as being composed of three parts: Ideal self: The ideal self is the person you want to be. This person has the attributes or qualities you are either working toward or want to possess. It's who you envision yourself to be if you were exactly the person you wanted to be. Self-image: Self-image refers to how you see yourself at this moment in time. Physical characteristics, personality traits, and social roles affect your self-image. Self-esteem: How much you like, accept, and value yourself contributes to your self-concept. Self-esteem can be affected by a number of factors, including how others see you, how you think you compare to others, and your role in society.3 How Self-Concept Develops Self-concept develops, in part, through our interaction and observation of others. In addition to family members and close friends, other people in our community and in the media can contribute to our self-identity. Someone believes in you. For instance, one study found that the more a teacher believes in a high-performing student's abilities, the higher that student's self-concept.5 (Interestingly, no such association was found with lower-performing students.) The characters we identify with. Self-concept can also be developed through the stories we hear. For example, one study found that female readers who were "deeply transported" into a story about a leading character with a traditional gender role had a more feminist self-concept than those who weren't as moved by the story. Thus, relating to and identifying with the character may affect your emotional response and confirm or alter your own ideas about yourself. The media. Both mass media and social media also play a role in self-concept development. When these media promote certain ideals, we're more likely to make those ideals our own. The more often these ideals are presented, the more they affect our self-identity and self-perception.6 Can Self-Concept Be Changed? Self-concept is not static, meaning that it can change. Our environment plays a role in this process. Places we are exposed to, especially those that hold a lot of meaning to us, actively contribute to our future self-concept through how we relate these environments to ourselves and how society relates to them.7 Self-concept can also change based on the people with whom we interact. This is particularly true for individuals in our lives who are in leadership roles. They can impact the collective self (the self in social groups) and the relational self (the self in relationships).8 In some cases, a medical diagnosis can change self-concept by helping people understand why they feel the way they do—such as someone receiving an autism diagnosis later in life, finally providing clarity as to why they feel different.9 Other Self-Concept Theories As with many topics within psychology, several other theorists have proposed different ways of thinking about self-concept. Social Identity Social psychologist Henri Tajfel developed social identity theory, which states that self-concept is composed of two essential parts:10 Personal identity: The traits and other characteristics that make you unique Social identity: Who you are based on your membership in social groups, such as sports teams, religions, political parties, or social class This theory states that our social identity influences our self-concept, thus affecting our emotions and behaviors. If we're playing sports, for instance, and our team loses a game, we might feel sad for the team (emotion) or act out against the winning team (behavior).11 Multiple Dimensions Psychologist Bruce A. Bracken had a slightly different theory and believed that self-concept was multidimensional, consisting of six independent traits:12 Academic: Success or failure in school Affect: Awareness of emotional states Competence: Ability to meet basic needs Family: How well you work in your family unit Physical: How you feel about your looks, health, physical condition, and overall appearance Social: Ability to interact with others In 1992, Bracken developed the Multidimensional Self-Concept Scale, a comprehensive assessment that evaluates each of these six elements of self-concept in children and adolescents.12 Mead's Three Stages of Development of Self George Herbert Mead (1863–1931) was an American philosopher,sociologistandpsychologist,primarily affiliated with the University of Chicago, where he was one of several distinguished pragmatists. He is regarded as one of the founders of social psychology and the American sociological tradition in general. His major contributions are Pragmatism and Symbolic Interaction, Social Philosophy (Behaviorism), Philosophy of Science, Play and Game and the Generalized Others. In this presentation we shall focus on his theory of self. George Herbert Mead suggested that the self develops through a three-stage role-taking process. These stages include the preparatory stage, play stage, and game stage. Stage 1: The Preparatory Stage The first stage is the preparatory stage. The preparatory stage lasts from the time we are born until we are about age two. In this stage, children mimic those around them. Children copy, or imitate, the behaviors of others around them without sophisticated understanding of what they are imitating. This is why parents of young children typically do not want you to use foul language around them. Stage 2: The Play Stage From about age two to six, children are in the play stage. In this stage, children begin to see themselves in relation to others. Children are believed to learn self- development and interaction through pretend play in this stage. It is critical because the children learn to behave in a certain way only when they have experienced the similar experiences such as going to school, going to the doctor for medical checkup or to the dentist or to learn more about how the world works. These types of internalized role taking activities help the children to understand why we do things and how we do things and to have an expectancy of what kind of perspective they should have. Stage 3: The Game Stage The third stage is the game stage, which is from about age seven onwards. Children understand their social position and the positions of those around them. Children become concerned about the demands and expectations of others. In this stage, children can begin to understand and adhere to the rules of games. They can begin to play more formalized games because they begin to understand other people’s perspective–or the perspective of the generalized other. In this stage, when children play pretend, they may still play house but are pretending to a mommy or a daddy independent of the one that resides in their home. The generalized other refers to the viewpoint of the social group at large. The child begins taking this perspective into account during this stage. The “Three Stages of Development of Self” focuses on the peculiar individuality of every self. Each person participates in the social process and develops a self by taking others into account. The ultimate product each individual experiences are the unique human being. As we grow older, constructing and maintaining our self has been far more influenced by others. Each individual plays their own role in encountering social interactions.