Psychology Notes - Deviance & Collective Behavior PDF

         Can be classified into 4 groups: folkways, mores, laws, and taboos. Dictate how important the norm is and consequences for deviating. \-      **Folkways** -- the mildest type of norm, just common rules/manners we are supposed to follow. Traditions individuals have followed for a long time,...

         Can be classified into 4 groups: folkways, mores, laws, and taboos. Dictate how important the norm is and consequences for deviating. \-      **Folkways** -- the mildest type of norm, just common rules/manners we are supposed to follow. Traditions individuals have followed for a long time, ex. opening the door, helping a person who's dropped item, or saying thank you. Consequences are not severe/consistent. No actual punishment. \-      **Mores** -- norms based on some moral value/belief. Generally produce strong feelings. Usually a strong reaction if more is violated. Ex. truthfulness. Don't have serious consequences.  \-      **Laws** -- still based on right and wrong, but have [formal consequences]. Ex. if you lie under oath, done something morally wrong but also violate laws of court.  \-      **Taboos --** completely wrong in any circumstance, and violation results in consequences far more extreme than a more. Often punishable by law and result in severe disgust by members of community. Ex. incest and cannibalism.  **         Perspectives on Deviance: Differential Association, Labelling Theory, and Strain Theory**          When [norm is violated,] it's referred to as **[deviance]**. Not negative, just [individuals behaving differently] from what society feels is normal. \-      Ex. most Americans eat meat, but someone who's vegetarian is deviant.           The **Theory of Differential Association** states that deviance is a [learned behavior] that results from continuous exposure to others that violate norms and laws -- learn from observation of others. Rejects norms/values and believes new behavior as norm.  \-      Relationships a person forms are very important -- if strong relationship to someone deviant, more likely to learn deviance than someone not.          **[Labeling Theory]** -- a behavior is deviant if people have judged the behavior and [labelled it as deviant]. Depends on what's acceptable in that society. Ex. steroids can be labelled as deviant and wrong by those who think so.  \-      **Primary deviance** -- no big consequences, reaction to deviant behavior is very mild. Individual behaves in same way without feeling wrong.  \-      **Secondary deviance** -- [more serious consequences], characterized by severe negative reaction that results in stigmatizing behavior.           **[Strain Theory]** -- if person is [blocked from attaining a culturally accepted goal], may turn to deviance. Pushed to attain certain goals, but may not have legitimate ways to achieve success.  **         Aspects of Collective Behavior: Fads, Mass Hysteria, and Riots**          What happens when large numbers of individuals behave in ways not in line with societal norms?          ***Collective behavior*** is not the same as group behavior, because of a few reasons. First, collective behavior is time-limited, and involves **short social interactions**, while groups stay together and socialize for long period of time. \-      Collectives can be **open**, while groups can be exclusive. \-      Collectives have **loose norms**, while groups have strongly defined norms. \-      Collective behavior is often driven by group dynamics, such as deindividualization. Certain group dynamics can encourage people to engage in acts they may consider wrong in different circumstances.            3 types of collective behavior: **fads, mass hysteria**, and **riots**.  \-      **Fad** is something that becomes incredibly popular very quickly, but loses popular just as quickly. Last for short period of time, but reach influence of large \# of people in that time. Perceived as cool/interesting by large group of people. Good example is a "cinnamon challenge" -- person has to eat large spoonful of ground cinnamon in under a minute and posting video online.  \-      **Mass hysteria** is large \# of people who experience delusions at same time, reach more people through rumours and fears. Often takes the form of panic reactions and negative news. Ex. severe weather warnings (mild form). Can also be result of psychology, when large amount of people believe they have same illness despite lack of disease -- mass psychogenic illness, or epidemic hysteria. Ex. after anthrax attack in US, over 2000 false alarms.  \-      **Riots** -- characterized by large \# of people who engage in dangerous behavior, such as vandalism. Chaotic and cost cities millions in damages. Individuals who act case aside societal norms and behave in very destructive ways, and violate laws. Often seen as a collective act of defiance/disapproval, due to perceived issue (ex. sports game outcome).           **Learning**           Types of Learning \-      **Nonassociative learning** -- when an organism is [repeatedly exposed] to one type of stimulus, ex. **habituation** and **sensitization**. ·       In **habituation**, person tunes out the stimulus.  ·       **Dishabituation** occurs when previously habituated stimulus is removed.  ·       **Sensitization** is increase in responsiveness to a repeated stimulus.  \-      **Associative learning** -- when one event is connected to another, ex. classical and operant conditioning.           **[Classical Conditioning]**: Neutral, Conditioned, and Unconditioned Stimuli and Responses          Ex. Guinea pig gets excited about carrot at first, but after time gets excited just at refrigerator door opening. Same with every other time refrigerator door opened.  \-      Called **classical conditioning**. Classical does not involve change in behaviour like operant conditioning. op \-      Carrot is an **unconditioned stimulus** because no one had to teach guinea pig to like carrots. Triggers excitement in guinea pig, an **unconditioned response**.  ·       Unconditioned means it's innate, and not learned. While conditioned means it's a learned behavior. \-      Right before guinea pig got carrot, heard refrigerator door -- a **neutral stimuli**. Doesn't cause excitement on its own.  \-      Conditioning is produced when the neutral stimulus is presented shortly before the unconditioned stimulus -- pairing the two together. Occurs when neutral stimulus is able to elicit the same response as the unconditioned stimulus). ·       Ex. guinea pig was conditioned to refrigerator door. ·       Refrigerator door becomes the **conditioned stimuli**, and elicits a **conditioned response**.          Classical Conditioning: Extinction, Spontaneous Recovery, Generalization, Discrimination \-      Recall last experiment, guinea pig also responds to desk door opening because it sounds similar to the refrigerator door -- **generalization**. Ability of something [similar to the conditioned stimulus] to [elicit the conditioned response,] and more similar they are the bigger the response.  ·       Generalization allows us to make [appropriate response to similar stimuli]. Ex. meeting someone new who smiles, reminds us of other smiles. \-      Guinea pig doesn't respond to dresser drawer -- **discrimination**, when you [respond to some stimuli but not others. ] \-      If you open refrigerator door and don't get a carrot anymore, over time she would [no longer react] -- **extinction**.  \-      But suddenly she hears refrigerator door open later, and makes a response -- **spontaneous recovery** (when old conditioned stimulus elicits response). Don't know why it happens, usually infrequently and less strong.           **[Operant Conditioning]**: Positive and Negative Reinforcement and Punishment \-      Associated with **B.F. Skinner** \-      **Operant conditioning** focuses on the relationship between [behavior and their consequences], and how those in turn [influence the behaviour](classical conditioning no change in behaviour) \-      Behaviours have consequences -- two types: **reinforcement** (increase a behavior) and **punishment** (decrease a behavior) ·       **Positive reinforcement** = something is being added to increase behavior, ex. a gas gift card for safe driving ·       **Negative reinforcement** = taking something away to increase tendency safe behavior will occur again. Ex. taking loud buzzing noise keeps going until you put on your seatbelt. Taking away sound of buzzer when you put on seatbelt is negative reinforcement, because taking something away in effort to increase behavior.  ·       **Positive punishment** = punish behaviours that are unsafe. Positive punishment means something is added to decrease tendency something will occur again. Ex. giving speeding ticket. ·       **Negative punishment** = something taken away in effort to decrease chance it'll occur again. Ex. taking away your license.  \-      **Primary reinforcers** are innately satisfying/desirable, like food. **Secondary reinforcers** are those learned to be reinforcers, such as previously neutral stimuli.  \-      **Token economy** -- system of behaviour modification based on systematic reinforcement of target behaviour, reinforcers are "tokens" that can be exchanged for other reinforcers (ex. Prizes).           Operant Conditioning: **[Shaping]**          "I want to learn to do a headstand" -- emphasize **learn**. Learning through practice is **shaping**.          Idea is you [successively reinforce behaviours that approximate the target behavior].           What is the **target behavior?** Ex. headstand.  \-      Showing up to yoga class, won't necessarily make you learn it. \-      Next, put hands on mat (downward dog). Then forearms on mat. Each is the reinforced behavior until next step.  \-      Finally, put legs up -- the target.           Operant Conditioning: **[Schedules of Reinforcement]**          Most of our behaviours are on a ***partial reinforcement*** schedule -- behavior is reinforced only some of the time. More resistant to extinction than continuous reinforcement.  \-      **Fixed-Ratio** -- ex. car salesman gets bonus every 5 cars he sells. Reinforcement only occurs after a fixed \# of responses. Contingent on \# of cars sold regardless of how long it takes.  \-      **Fixed-Interval --** ex. receives pay check every 2 weeks -- in this case, time is constant. Doesn't change if he sells 1 car or 100 cars. Less incentive.  \-      **Variable-Ratio** -- Reinforcement is delivered after average \# of right responses has occurred. Similar to fixed-ratio, except \# changes. Just fixed-ratio but varies. Ex. bonus can be 5 cars for first bonus, 3 for second, 7 for third, 6, then 4 etc. Average is 5.  ·       Another example is slot machine.  \-      **Variable-Interval** -- Responses are reinforced after a variable amount of time has passed. Ex. bonus can come randomly on different days.           Operant Conditioning: **Innate vs. Learned Behaviours** \-      **[Innate behavior]** is performed correctly the first time in response to a stimulus -- they innately possess.  ·       Simple -- **reflexes** (squint or blinking), **taxis** (bugs fly towards light, can be towards or away from stimulus -- a purposeful movement), **kinesis** (rats randomly scurrying in different directions -- no purpose).   ·       Complex -- **fixed action patterns** (mating dance), **migration** (birds flying south), **circadian rhythms** (biological clock, waking up early to sing)  \-      **[Learned behaviours]** are learned through experience.  ·       **Habituation --** response to alarm decreases over time. Ex. curing phobia by repeated exposure to the fear until intensity of emotional response decreases.  ·       **Classical conditioning --** associate alarm with fire ·       **Operant conditioning --** consequences that follow behavior increase/decrease likelihood of behavior happening again ·       **Insight learning** -- solve a problem using past skills, the "aha" moment is insight learning ·       **Latent learning**- learned behaviour is not expressed until required           Operant Conditioning: **Escape and Avoidance Learning**          2 types of **aversive control**, situations where behavior is motivated by threat of something unpleasant -- examples of negative reinforcement (removing undesirable stimulus following correct behavior)  \-      **Escape** -- escape an unpleasant stimulus ex. fire, element of surprise because you're thrown in condition where you have to find way to get out \-      **Avoidance** -- avoid fire before it.         **Theories of Attitude and Behavior Change**                    Persuasion, Attitude Change, and the Elaboration Likelihood Model          **Persuasion** is a method for attitude/behavior change. **The elaboration likelihood model** explains when people will be [influenced by the **content of a speech** vs. more superficial features].           3 main characteristics that impact on how we are persuaded for/against a message: \-      1) **Message characteristics** -- message itself, clarity, how well thought message it. Also includes how well written it was, does speaker have good grasp of grammar, appropriate vocabulary, length of talk, etc.  \-      2) **Source characteristics** -- what is their level of expertise, trustworthy, and is information credible or not. Physical environment, venue of event.  \-      3) **Target characteristics** -- characteristics of listener such as mood, self-esteem, alertness, intelligence, etc. How we receive a message.           According to model, we process info along 2 target paths: **central** and **peripheral routes**.  \-      **Central** -- people are [persuaded by the content] of the argument. Leads to **deep processing** of information. Results in a ***lasting attitude change***. People will only choose this route when they are interested in the topic.  \-      **Peripheral** -- don't care about topic, [little motivation]/interest. Leads to **shallow processing** of information, such as the speaker's looks. Creates a ***temporary attitude change***.          **[Reciprocal Determinism]**          **Reciprocal determinism** is the interaction between a person's behaviours, personal factors (motivation), and environment.           The **Social-Cognitive Theory** view [behaviours as being influenced by people's actions/cognitions and their social context.] Talking about interactions between individual and situation they're in. \-      Cognition -\> Environment -\> Behavior \-      Ex. Meg is interested in soccer (**cognition**), joins a soccer team (**environment**), and spends time with soccer players (**behavior**). \-      Or, she can spend a lot of time with soccer players, become interested in it, and joins a soccer team. Behavior leads to a cognition. \-      Other direction: hangs with soccer players, so she joins a soccer team , and then after a while develop a real interest in soccer, which then reinforces her hanging with the team.           This theory was developed by **Bandura** (same scientist who did work on observational learning).           **[Personal Control]** (Locus of Control, Learned Helplessness, and the Tyranny of Choice)          Important element of social cognitive theory is **personal control.** Internal or external. \-      I should have studied harder -- **internal locus of control**, can control fate of own destiny \-      That was an unfair test -- **external locus of control**, perceive outside forces that help to control your fate          Those internal achieve more in school/work, cope better with stress and lower depression. External do not as well and higher rates of depression.          **Learned helplessness** -- when tone is sounded dogs receive electric shock, but could press button to stop the shock. Group 2 had no way to turn off the shocks.  \-      After, dogs placed in new environment and had 2 sides separated by low partition in middle. Given electric shocks, but dogs in group 1 learned to escape shock by jumping over barrier. Dogs in group 2 didn't try to escape the shock. \-      Therefore, uncontrollable bad events can lead to a **perceived** lack of control, which leads to general helpless behavior.           Increasing people's control over very small things, like TV remote can increase the health and well-being of people in nursery homes.           What about too much control? Too many choices can also [negatively impact our cognition and behavior] -- the **tyranny of choice**.  \-      Ex. too many choices at stores \-      Those who had to pick 1/6 were more satisfied with their behavior, those who had to pick 1/30 less happy with their choice. \-      One result is **information overload**, and can lead people to **decision paralysis** and **increased regret** over choice made.           Personal control is important, any control people have on environment even a little has good effect on well-being. On other hand too much is not good either.           **Self-Control**          The ability to control our impulses and delay gratification.           Humans have **desires** which aren't necessarily bad, but they can become a **temptation** (when they conflict with our long-term values and goals). \-      So self-control is focussing on long-term goals while putting off short-term temptations.          The most famous experiment is commonly referred to as the **marshmallow test**. Kids in preschool given marshmallow and could eat it whenever, but if they waited 15 minutes they could get another marshmallow.  \-      Some ate it right away, but other kids licked it.  \-      Those who were able to wait tended to have better life outcomes when followed 10 years later.           **Ego depletion** -- idea that self-control is a [limited resource]. If you use a lot of it it can get used up, and less to use in the future.  \-      Demonstrated by experiment that those who resisted eating cookies ended up giving up sooner on another unrelated task that also requires self-control. \-      Muscle is used as a metaphor for self-control. Can be strengthened, but also depleted. \-      Training self-control in one area can improve it in other areas.           How to [improve self-control] \-      1) **Change environment** -- ex. moving snacks to more difficult to reach shelf.  \-      2) **Operant conditioning** -- reinforcing good behaviours with rewards. Positive/negative reinforcement or punishment.