Social Psychology Midterm 2 Study Guide PDF

**[Week 4 (Prejudice, Stereotypes and Discrimination)]\ \ Stereotypes:** Negative associations with groups of people. (Cognitive/Beliefs component)\ No valence is involved. Can be positive, negative or neutral.\ \ **Prejudice:** Negative attitudes towards a group of people. (Affect Component)\ Valen...

**[Week 4 (Prejudice, Stereotypes and Discrimination)]\ \ Stereotypes:** Negative associations with groups of people. (Cognitive/Beliefs component)\ No valence is involved. Can be positive, negative or neutral.\ \ **Prejudice:** Negative attitudes towards a group of people. (Affect Component)\ Valence is involved: X group is bad or does bad behaviour.\ \ **Discrimination:** Negative behaviours towards a group of people (Behavioural component)\ Differential treatment. Valence does not have to be involved. Usually explicit.\ \ Stereotypes, prejudice and discrimination can be independent and do not require each other.\ But, they often occur together.\ \ **Stigma:** A devalued identity. Happens at the individual's identity level. If theres any part of your identity that is devalued in the context they're in, they are stigmatized.\ \ Racism and Sexism often at least incorporate two components. (Individual and systemic.)\ **Individual:**\ **Systemic:** Institutional or cultural practices that reinforce one groups dominance over another. **Bias:** Preferring members of our own groups (Ingroup).\ \ In group/out group dynamics can occur based on any social category people belong to. It changes based on social context.\ \ **Explicit Prejudice/Bias:** Conscious and deliberate negative attitudes about a group that are expressed. People who are explicitly prejudiced know they are.\ There is evidence that explicit prejudice has been reduced in the western world. However, it is not going away.\ **Implicit Prejudice/Bias:** Automatic, difficult to control positive/negative associations between groups. Everyone has it. People are not always consciously aware that they have these attitudes. There is some evidence that they guide different behaviours.\ \ Explicit → (More predictive) → Conscious, controllable behaviours (Saying racist/sexist things.)\ Implicit → (More predictive) → subtle behaviours we are less in control of or aware of.\ Non verbal facial information, eye contact. People have become more hesitant about expressing their explicit prejudice.\ **Old fashioned racism:** Explicit racism\ **Modern Aversive Racism:** People will act prejudiced when safe, socially acceptable or when a situation is ambiguous so that you can attribute behaviours to something other than racism.\ Well intentioned egalitarian people can demonstrate behavioural biases.\ This is more strongly related to anxiety about interacting with other groups rather than anger or hatred.\ \ **Microaggressions:** Subtle but hurtful forms of regular discrimination A way of expressing racism, rather than a type of racism. "Micro" refers to the fact that these are small things that happen daily; not that they have a small impact\ \ Microaggressions can have big implications: E.g., "But Indigenous people don't pay taxes\..." E.g., "But you're not like other \[racial group members\]\..." Microaggressions can be sexist, ableist, ageist, etc. **Aversive racism**: Ambiguous hiring candidates were less likely to be hired if they were black. The ambiguity was solved by racist assumptions. One of the underlying causes of prejudice is the fear of prejudice.\ If you don\'t have experience of interacting with other groups you are likely to be more anxious in these interactions.\ Interracial interactions can be mentally exhausting because people self-monitor to avoid appearing prejudiced.\ People may try and avoid these interactions due to fear.\ Anxiety in these situations cuts into cognitive resources and makes it harder to be self aware of implicit biases. [Sexism]\ \ Similar to racism, but some nuance/unique elements\ Stereotypes of women are generally more positive than stereotypes of men: "Women are wonderful stereotype".\ \ Ambivalent Sexism: Two different types of sexism operating at the same time.\ \ **Hostile Sexism:** Negative, resentful feelings about women. Explicit sexism. A common theme of misogynistic beliefs are that women are manipulative. **Benevolent Sexism:** Affectionate, chivalrous feelings founded on the belief that women need and deserve protection. Women should adhere to normative femininity.\ \ Carrot and stick of sexism. Accept benevolent sexism or get hostile sexism.\ \ Both men and women endorse beliefs of benevolent and hostile sexism.\ \ The more you engage in hostile and benevolent sexisms the less likely you are to protest against sexually discriminating behaviour. **Warmth/Competence** trade off for women. When a woman is seen as competent she is seen as less warm. **Glass ceiling**: Women are less likely to rise to the highest levels of organizations\ **Glass cliff**: Women CEOs are more likely to be hired when a company is in turmoil. Race isn't at the root of racism Our ancestors did not encounter individuals of other races Hunter/gatherer societies Slow moving, mostly stayed in same area (several hundred km) Yet outsiders (mostly other tribes) still dangerous Disease Steal resources Appearance-based signals of "outsiderness" used to identify danger, otherness, trigger own-group favouritism Hanging out with small groups was safe and adaptive behaviour.\ Avoidance of potentially dangerous outsiders is still useful in modern times, but signifiers of otherness have changed.\ We still use signals of variation in appearance (Age, gender, race)\ \ There is no biological foundation for the idea of race.\ Concept of race changes based on setting, culture and context.\ **Robbers Cave:** Identity formation (Flags, names, culture) caused division. Superordinate goals caused group cohesion. **Realistic Conflict Theory:** Direct competition between groups for resources breeds hostility. **Relative Deprivation Theory:** ACTUAL/ABSOLUTE resources don't matter. PERCEIVED resource DISPARITIES lead to conflict. Everyone in the neighbourhood is a multimillionaire. But the Hudson's down the street have 16 hunting falcons and a tiger. We are jealous and resentful. Resources don't just refer to food, money, raw materials.\ Group status is also a resource.\ We derive meaning and self esteem from our groups and group status.\ We use the groups we belong to to inform our self-concept.\ **Social Identity Theory:** We want our groups to be the best and show favoritism to our groups\ \ Minimal groups paradigm:\ People are randomly assigned groups but presumably based on something real.\ You are an overestimator/underestimator. These distinctions are made up by the experimenters. There are no existing stereotypes or biases about these groups.\ Even in these meaningless groups there was still in group favoritism and outgroup derogation.\ This shows that you don't need meaning to get conflict. The group membership alone is enough to cause derogation.\ \ This work has helped to separate two components of bias Because bias is just showing different treatment to two groups Could be "ingroup favouritism" Or "outgroup derogation" Although outgroup derogation definitely exists\..... MOST bias we encounter in the world is favouring the ingroup, without particularly caring what happens to outgroup Don't necessarily want to HURT outgroup, just prefer to HELP ingroup Presumably because if our group is doing well we feel good about ourselves [Social Categorization]**\ \ **Its easier to categorize people broadly with generalized information. This process leads us to overestimate differences between groups and underestimate differences within groups.\ \ **Outgroup homogeneity Effect:** The tendency to assume that there is greater similarity among members of outgroups than among members of in groups.\ \ There is less contact with outgroups, less opportunity to get to know the nuance.\ This consequently shapes the mental representations you have of in groups (Nuanced) and out groups (Broad).\ The natural consequence of these is the reinforcement of stereotypes.\ \ Stereotypes are just schemas for social groups.\ From a cognitive resource perspective, these are useful shortcuts to help us navigate the world.\ \ But like any summary, this often leads to error when applying it to individuals.\ This prevents the formations of more individuated impressions. Why do stereotypes persist? COnfirmation biases.\ We are looking for information that confirms our beliefs (Stereotypes)\ \ **Subtyping:** When we see stereotype confirming behaviour, we accept it. When we see stereotype conflicting behaviour we write it off as an exception to the rule. We don't update our stereotypes (schemas) with new information. We make a new sub category of the stereotype instead of updating our information about the macro-group.\ \ We tend to use **intrinsic explanations** for stereotype confirming behaviours.\ We tend to use **extrinsic explanations** for stereotype disconfirming behaviours. **Culture** and **socialization** are the two biggest influences on stereotypes and prejudice.\ **Socialization:** How we learn norms, rules, values and information on groups. This includes which groups can be devalued and which prejudices are acceptable.\ Peers, media and culture are steeped in these stereotypes and prejudices.\ \ **Stereotype Threat:** Fear of acting in a manner consistent with stereotypes.\ Received a lot of in education, mostly with black people, women, asians.\ \ If people are reminded of their identity it impacts their performance based on if the stereotype is positive or negative.\ \ The person doesn\'t have to believe the stereotype for it to effect them, they just have to know about it. This increases anxiety. [Can this be fixed?]\ \ **Contact Hypothesis:** Simple, regular contact will reduce stereotyping, prejudice, and discrimination. Contact generally works. It works better under some situations than others.\ \ Four conditions\ \ Equal status: The two groups must interact as equals.\ Common goals: If the two groups share a common or superordinate goal\ Cooperative activities: We want to avoid competition and focus on working together.\ Structural support: Systemic factors should be in place to support contact and cooperation rather than division.\ \ Almost all of these is working to reduce anxiety during interactions. It also increases empathy and enhances knowledge.\ \ **Common Ingroup Identity Model:** If members of different groups recategorize themselves as members of a more superordinate inclusive groups, intergroup attitudes and relations can improve. Minority or marginalized groups can lose important aspects of their group identity.\ \ Self control\ \ Controlling prejudice requires ability and motivation\ \ **Self-regulation of prejudice responses model:** Intrinsically motivated people learn to control prejudice more effectively over time - They disrupt stereotype activation.\ Extrinsic: not wanting to appear prejudiced to others\ Intrinsic: Not wanting to be prejudiced (Moral reasons)\ \ Representation is important\ Exposure to images and individuals can change values, norms and results in change in popular culture.\ \ The problem is we know contact works but we don\'t have contact on a day to day basis.\ Racial segregation in cities.\ \ Ideological segregation between cities and towns happens regularly.\ \ **Implicit bias training:** Diversity training does not work. You are trying to undo years of implicit bias socialization in a couple of afternoons. The effects of the interventions decay rapidly.\ \ There is a difference between awareness and change.\ \ [**Week 5 (Attitudes and Belief)**\ \ ]Attitudes: Attributions and opinions towards objects, people and concepts.\ \ Self esteem = attitudes towards the self\ Prejudice = attitudes towards other people or groups.\ \ Attitudes can be positive, negative, ambiguous or indifferent.\ \ Attitudes are cognitive heuristics, they allow us to quickly understand and interpret a complex social world. Is this thing good or bad?\ \ [Measurements of attitude]\ \ **Self-reports:** Likert scales, simple and straightforward. However people can lie or the question can be too simple to capture the idea. (Experimental demand effects)\ \ **Bogus pipeline:** Participants are convinced that experimenter will know when lying (Fake lie detector)\ Participants were more likely to admit to socially unacceptable behaviour.\ \ [Indirect measures:] Less controllable\ \ **Facial electromyography (EMG)**: Electronic instrument that records facial muscle activity associated with emotions and attitudes.\ **Brain imaging**: EEG (Brain waves), fMRI (Brain activity) IAT is an indirect measure Implicit Attitude: Attitude that one may not be aware of having\ Typically measured with implicit associations test (IAT) [Scrutiny of IAT]\ \ Explicit and implicit attitudes are qualitatively different.\ Explicit attitudes better predict overt behaviour than the IAT. But the IAT may predict socially sensitive behaviours (non-normative behaviours) better than explicit attitudes.\ \ [Attitude formation]\ \ **Nurture (Environment):** Attitudes may change during major life events, when you're exposed to different norms and ideas.\ \ **Nature (Genetics):** Twin studies examine identical twins raised in same vs. different homes. Identical twins separated at birth shared attitudes on things like political beliefs, sexual beliefs and religiosity.\ \ Researchers will test how reactive individuals are to negative stimuli. They found people who were more reactive tended to have attitudes that supported socio-political threat responses.\ There is a biological basis for some attitudes.\ \ Lapiere road tripped with a Chinese-American couple.\ They were allowed service at every business except for one.\ Lapiere wrote and called these businesses and asked if they would accept chinese american customers, 90% said no.\ Attitudes don't always predict behaviour.\ \ Theory of planned behaviour:\ \ These things do not predict behaviours, they predict behavioural intentions.\ Attitudes: Our positive and negative attributions towards subjects\ Subjective norm: Societal and cultural beliefs about what behaviours are appropriate\ Perceived behavioural control: Can I actually commit to this behaviour? Am I able to do this?\ \ These three things predict our intentions\ \ The closer attitudes are linked towards identities (Self-concept), the more likely that these attitudes will predict behaviour. Attitudes most clearly predict behaviours when:\ The attitude measures ask about the exact behaviour\ In the context of deliberate decision making\ The attitudes are strongly held (Linked to self concept)\ \ Cultural attitudes about preference and choice can influence behaviour.\ Individualistic: More attitude to behaviour correspondence.\ Collectivist: Social norms have a larger impact of attitudes leading to behaviour [Persuasion via communication]\ \ **Mere exposure effect:** The more we see something, the more we tend to like it. (Why ads work) As long as it\'s positive or neutral.\ The more classes the woman attended, the more the classmates liked her.\ \ **Persuasion:** Process by which attitudes are changed.\ \ **Dual Processing Model:** Two routes of persuasion\ **Central Route:** Uses facts, logic, content of message, requires higher thought to interpret.\ Most effective when making strong arguments. Weak arguments will backfire, you may entrench people in their original attitude.\ \ **Peripheral Route:** Surface level. Used when people are not motivated to think deeply about something.\ Most effective when they include cues/heuristics that people use to make decision without a lot of thought. (Associating products with celebrities).\ \ Three factors are important in these messages\ \ **1.) Source of message\ \ **This is far more important when persuasions are made on the peripheral route.**\ **Relies on two aspects\ \ **Credibility:**\ Source needs to be seen as competent (expert) and trustworthy (No conflict of interest, motivations). Both are needed to seem credible\ \ **Likeability:**\ \ Two parts\ \ Physical attractiveness adds to likability\ Similarity adds to likability\ \ **Sleeper effect:** We remember messages over time, but we tend to forget the source. Credibility matters in the moment, but fades over time. The message persists.\ \ In the peripheral route, non credible people can seem like experts by saying things that people already agree with and saying it confidently.\ \ Attractiveness is pretty much always a good thing when it comes to persuasion. **2.) Content of message**\ \ The message itself is most relevant to the central route.\ Both the content of the message and how it is delivered determines how effective it is.\ \ Fear is a very effective persuasion strategy. Making people scared motivates them to do something about their fear. This only works if you provide people with a solution.\ \ Making people feel good also works very well (Advertisers commonly use this).\ This works by pairing a message with good feelings.\ This also works by turning the peripheral route on. People don't think deeply when they're happy. They don't want to ruin their happiness by thinking deeply.\ \ **Big Discrepancy:** Trying to make someone change their mind a lot. It\'s harder to persuade someone this way. This works best if it is from a credible source.\ \ **Small discrepancy:** Trying to make smaller incremental changes to attitude. Works if it is less credible. You are more likely to have success changing people\'s mind in small ways.\ \ **One sided appeal:** Only mentioning the pros of a good argument.\ If an audience already agrees with the message and will not find the cons, a one sides appeal is best. (Peripheral route)\ \ **Two-sided appeal:** Mention both pros and cons. If an audience already opposes the message, or knows the cons, or will find them out, a two sided approach is best. (Central route) **Primacy:** Information presented early has more influence. Defense's opening statement is more effective if it comes before the prosecution's. (Open with strengths, middle is weaknesses, finish with strengths). Primacy effect has more of an effect when there is a time delay before a decision.\ \ **Recency:** Information presented last can sometimes overwrite information that came first. The recency effect is most influential when there is no delay between the messages and the decision. The most recently heard message will have the most effect. **3.) Audience** It depends on the ability and the motivation of your audience. If they have the ability and the motivation, they are more likely to be on the central route. If they lack it they are most likely on the peripheral route.\ \ If the audience is **forewarned** about the content of your contrary message they are more likely to contest it.\ If the audience is **distracted** they may not interpret the content of your message.\ If the audience is **inoculated** by defending against your appeals, they build up resistance to accepting them. Resisting arguments consecutively reinforces their stance.\ Personality factors can also affect how people respond to messages.\ \ **Forewarning:**\ *Cognitive factor:* If you know a persuasive appeal is coming, you have a chance to come up with a counter argument (Central route)\ *Motivational factor:* We brace and steel ourselves for impact because we don\'t want to have our minds changed. (Peripheral route).\ Inoculation hypothesis:\ Psychological reactance: People don\'t want to have their minds changed in general.\ \ **Personality Factors**\ \ Regulatory Fit:\ *Promotion*: People like to achieve goals or engage in games. Risk takers.\ *Prevention:* Focused on avoiding failure, less likely to try risky things to enjoy successes.\ \ *Need for cognition*: A personality variable reflecting the extent to which people engage in and enjoy effortful cognitive activities. Do they enjoy thinking deeply and critically? If yes, central route is more persuasive.\ \ *Self-Monitoring:* The tendency to change behaviour in response to the social situation. Culture also matters when making persuasive messages.\ \ Individualistic audiences respond better to messages that should focus on personal benefits, self-improvements, competition.\ \ Collectivistic audiences respond better to messages that focus on integrity, achievement and group benefits. [\ \ Cognitive Dissonance: Self Persuasion]\ \ **Cognitive Dissonance Theory**: Inconsistent cognitions arouses psychological tension that people become motivated to reduce. **Conditions for cognitive dissonance:** An attitude-discrepant behavior Chosen freely With some knowledge of the consequences [Reducing Dissonance:]\ \ Change your attitude\ Change your perception of the behaviour\ Add behaviour supporting cognitions (Moral Justification)\ Minimize the importance of the dissonance\ Reduce perceived choice **Insufficient justification:** If there is insufficient benefit to completing a task, people lie to themselves about how much they enjoyed it to resolve the dissonance. Hazing rituals create cognitive dissonance.\ \ **Justifying effort:** We alter our attitudes to justify our suffering. The more time, money or effort you choose to invest in something, the more anxious you feel if the outcome disappoints. Change your attitude and like the thing even if it disappoints. Choice between two attractive or seemingly equal options produces dissonance *We reduce the dissonance by:* Derogating the one we didn't choose Boosting the one we did choose This is a built-in system that seems to make us satisfied with our choices.\ In some ways it doesn\'t matter what you choose, your body will make you accept what you did choose as the best choice. Cultural context may influence both the arousal and the reduction of cognitive dissonance: Western (individualist) cultures: Decisions are expected to be consistent with personal attitudes. East Asian (collectivist) cultures: Decisions are expected to benefit ingroup members Post-decision justification effect occurs in both groups, but cultures influence the conditions under which these processes occur. New look of cognitive dissonance:\ 1.) Change a thought\ 2.) Change behaviour\ 3.) Add new thoughts that rationalize the inconsistency. 4.) Trivialize the inconsistency\ \ It is physically uncomfortable to experience cognitive dissonance\ \ It is more of a problem when you realize you had a choice Knowledge of negative consequences caused by inconsistent actions.\ \ **[Week 6 (Conformity)]**\ \ **Social Norms:** Rules or guidelines in a group or culture about what behaviours are proper or improper.\ Implicit or explicit social norm **Conformity:** THe tendency to change our perceptions, opinions or behaviour in ways that are consistent with our social or group norms.\ People in North America often think of themselves as nonconformists and think they conform less than others. We do this because:\ \ **Informational Influence:** We want to be right, we want to understand the world truthfully. We look to other people for answers and if the majority are doing something we assume it must be right.\ When everyone else agrees on something, we tend to think its correct.\ This is most likely to occur in situations of uncertainty or ambiguity. If we know the answer to something we tend to conform our opinions on it less.\ This happens in eyewitness testimony because witnesses tend to conform their story to other witnesses if they hear their stories. Demonstrated in Sherif's Autokinetic Effect.\ Single point of light that\'s not moving. Optical illusion, appears to move. This was an ambiguous and challenging task.\ They have to guess how much the light is moving. Participants do the task alone first. They then do it in groups. The more people they're doing the task with the more their answers tend to converge.\ \ This also commonly occurs when there is a crisis.\ This also occurs when other people are experts on a subject. We have a higher chance of accuracy if we conform to experts.\ \ Informational social influence leads to private acceptance. This means that you change your behaviours, feelings and thoughts. You are not just conforming to fit in. You are acting and believing in accord with social pressure. **Normative Influence:** We conform so we are not rejected. It is socially advantageous to conform. We do this out of a desire to fit in and be liked. Accuracy is secondary.\ We conform to social norms to avoid poor outcomes. Deviant members of a group may be punished and rejected.\ Normative social influence leads to public conformity.\ We change our behaviours but not our attitudes.\ Initially public conformity can lead to private acceptance. THis can lead to cognitive dissonance and we can develop private conformity by resolving the dissonance.\ \ WHen are people most likely to conform to normative social influence **Ostracism:**\ We have a fundamental need to belong. Some have argued this is a drive state like thirst or hunger.\ When we're rejected, it physically hurts. The same part of the brain activates during rejection as when we experience physical pain. Rejection can also lead to numbness. This occurs for a large range of targets. Even when people are rejected by outgroups or people they don't like, it still hurts. **Asch's Line Study on Social Pressure:**\ \ Subject was in the second last position.\ 25% of subjects refused to agree with any of the incorrect group judgments\ 50% of subjects went along on at least half of the critical presentation\ Standard experiment: Subject conformed 37% of the time\ Partner experiment: Subject did not conform\ Written answers experiment: Subject did not conform\ Replicated 30 years later with similar results\ \ Subject conformed due to normative influence Those who did not confirm said they felt crazy, conspicuous or a misfit.\ \ **Social Impact Theory:** Needs three conditions\ 1.) Strength of groups importance: The more important a group to us, the more likely we are to conform.\ 2.) Immediacy of the group (space and time): The closer a group is to us physically, the more likely we are to conform to its normative pressures.\ 3.) The number of people in the group: The more people in a group the more we conform, up to a point.\ As the size of the group increases, each additional person has less of an effect. Around 3-4 people, the numeracy effect plateaus.\ \ When we have no allies or people that share our opinions, it is much harder not to conform.\ In real life: Analyzed all U.S. Supreme Court decisions from 1953-2001 (over 4,000 cases) Most common decision: 35% Unanimous, 9-0 Least common decision: 10% Single dissenter, 8-1 What can we do to resist inappropriate normative social influence? 1.) Be aware that it is operating 2.) Take action: Try to find an ally\ 3.) Conforming most of the time earns an occasional deviation without consequences. **Idiosyncrasy Credits:** The tolerance a person earns over time by conforming to group norms; if enough idiosyncrasy credits are earned, the person can occasionally behave deviantly without retribution from the group. **Minority Influence:** Humans don't like non-conformers See it as criticism of self and humans don't like to be criticized. Non-conformers perceived as competent and honest, but disliked and rejected (Levine, 1989) Can it work? How? To be an effective minority dissenter someone must be:\ Consistent, unwavering, forceful. Appearing flexible and open-minded Stimulates majority group members to re-examine their own views ("Why is this person doing this?") More influence (but initially more disliked) when part of "us" rather than "them" (Moscovici et al., 1985) [Compliance]\ \ **Compliance**: Changes in behaviour elicited by direct requests. (Not persuasion, persuasion is about attitude) **Mindedness Compliance:** People are more compliant if a reason is given for a request. The mind is often on autopilot and people tend to respond prior to consideration if the request takes normal format. Its irrelevant if the reason is a *good* one. **Six Weapons of Influence**: (Robert Cialdini) **1.) Reciprocity**\ \ **Norm of reciprocity:** People are more willing to comply with a request from someone who has previously provided a favour (e.g., free gift) or concession.\ **Social debt**: people try to avoid it; causes discomfort. They will agree to perform a return favour that is larger than the one they received and will avoid asking for a favour if they will not be able to repay it.\ \ **Door-In-The-Face-Technique:** Making a large and unreasonable effect at first and then following up with the real request. Due to the perceptual contrast, the second request seems smaller and much more reasonable. **Norm of reciprocity:** Conceding smaller commitment can be perceived as "giving" something (but first request has to appear sincere). Because they denied your large request, people will generally accept your request to balance the scales. **Thats-Not-All:** Sweetening the pot with something extra or free that would have been given anyway. This works because you feel indebted for them doing you a favor. **2.) Commitment & Consistency\ **\ **Consistency Rule:** We are motivated to appear consistent and to be consistent.\ **Foot in the door:** Small request followed up by the larger actual request. Because you previously agreed to the smaller request, you will agree to the larger request to remain consistent.\ **Lowballing:** Low cost offer that changes to something higher after your agree to buy it. You have already mentally committed to the action.\ **Bait and Switch:** You agree to an action or to make a purchase, when you show up, you are offered a substitute that is less desirable. You've already committed so you might just continue this action.\ **Labeling:** Assigning labels to people and then requesting something that is consistent with the label. "You look like a really kind person, can you donate to my charity?" **3.) Social Proof**\ The idea that everyone else is doing something so you should do it too. This is leveraging normative social influence. Using conformity to get compliance. **4.) Liking** We are more persuaded by people we like (mood/similarity/attractiveness) **5.) Authority** We are more persuaded by credible authority figures\ Relevance is very important. You have to be an expert or authority figure in the field that is important in the request. **6.) Scarcity** **Scarcity Rule:** We should try to secure those opportunities that are scarce or dwindling.\ Heuristic: Scarcity signals value\ Limited number technique (Creates urgency)\ Fast approaching deadline technique (Reduces the window in which people can think about whether or not they want to do the action or not)\ \ [Obedience]\ \ **Obedience:** Behaviour changes produced by commands of authority. It is compliance through power. Obedience is a powerful, universally valued norm. Its not all bad (obeying rules and laws that allow society to function).\ We are socialized from childhood to obey legitimate authority.\ We obey the rules even when there is no authority figure present (Internalization)\ But this can be dangerous when we obey an illegitimate authority. **Milgram's Obedience Experiments**\ \ Trying to understand Nazis (son of Jewish immigrants) Terrible or normal people in abnormal circumstances? Would normal people obey authority to harm another? Experts thought that \< 1% of Ps will do serious harm People were commanded to shock a confederate.\ 65% of participants shocked the confederate with 450v (Highest level)\ \ Burger recreated this experiment in 2009. Results were more or less the same but people were a little less obedient.\ \ There were differences in:\ \ % of participants who went to 450 volts estimated (They only went to 150v) Exclusion criteria Reminded people of their ability to withdraw 3x at the start The addition of a defiant confederate (posing as a teacher) lowered people's obedience slightly.\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ **Social Psychology Midterm 2 Study Guide** **Week 4: Prejudice, Stereotypes, and Discrimination** - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - **Week 5: Attitudes and Beliefs** - - - - - - - - - - - - - - **Week 6: Conformity** - - - - - - - - - - - - - - **Key Considerations:** - - - - - - - - -