Social Psychology Test 6 PDF

Social Psy Test 6 Aggression is a behavior characterized by strong feelings of hostility, anger, or the intention to harm others Pro-social aggression is socially sanctioned and approved by society. Example: Witnessing a mugging and chasing the robber is considered pro-social aggression. Sanctio...

Social Psy Test 6 Aggression is a behavior characterized by strong feelings of hostility, anger, or the intention to harm others Pro-social aggression is socially sanctioned and approved by society. Example: Witnessing a mugging and chasing the robber is considered pro-social aggression. Sanctioned aggression is somewhat accepted by society, such as aggression in sports. Example: In sports, aggression towards opposing fans is considered sanctioned aggression and somewhat accepted. Hostile aggression is aimed at causing harm without any other goal. Example: In a bar fight, the primary goal is to harm the other person and is considered hostile aggression. Instrumental aggression uses aggression as a means to an end, not necessarily to harm. Example: Robbing a store to obtain money without intending to harm is considered instrumental aggression. Aggression can be triggered by frustration over a blocked goal, environmental cues like noise and heat, and provocation by others, especially in close relationships and physiological arousal, such as the fight or flight response, can increase aggression. Theories of aggression include: Instinct Theory: Aggression is an innate instinct, as proposed by Freud. Frustration-Aggression Theory: Frustration can lead to aggression if not managed. Social Learning Theory: Aggression is learned through observation and imitation. Social Learning Theory suggests that aggression is learned through observing others. Example: Social Learning Theory supports Albert Bandura's experiment where children observed adults interacting with a Bobo doll. Children who observed aggressive behavior were more likely to imitate it. Children were divided into groups observing either aggressive or non-aggressive adult behavior. Those who observed aggression were more likely to act aggressively towards the Bobo doll. Media influences aggression by priming individuals to respond aggressively and reducing their sensitivity to violence. Example: Music Lyrics and Aggression Study- Participants listened to songs with neutral or misogynistic lyrics and their aggressive behavior was measured by how long they left another person's hand in ice water. Men exposed to misogynistic lyrics left women's hands in ice water longer. Women exposed to anti-male lyrics left men's hands in ice water longer. Aggression can be influenced by situational factors such as temperature, media exposure, social rejection, and economic conditions. Understanding these factors can help in developing strategies to mitigate aggression. Example: George Floyd's Murder by Derek Chauvin Derek Chauvin kneeling on George Floyd's neck, leading to Floyd's death. The situation outside Cup Foods involved racial dynamics and power imbalances between police and citizens. The incident exemplifies how situational factors, like racial dynamics and power imbalances, can lead to aggression. Construal Processes and Aggression: Construal processes involve how individuals perceive and interpret situations, which can influence their likelihood of acting aggressively. Aggression is studied through experiments that manipulate environmental cues and measure aggressive responses. Example: Weapons Effect Experiment- Participants were exposed to different items on a shelf, including a gun and a badminton racket, to see how these items influenced their aggression levels when provoked by an electric shock. Frustration-Aggression Theory: This theory suggests that aggression results from blocking a person's efforts to achieve a goal. Example: A person becomes aggressive when stuck behind a slow driver while trying to reach a destination on time. Mitigating information provides context for understanding why someone might behave aggressively. When individuals have this information, they are more likely to empathize and less likely to retaliate. Without such information, people tend to attribute aggressive behavior to the individual's character, leading to a higher likelihood of retaliation. Example: A waitress behaves aggressively after having her tips stolen, but knowing this information beforehand can lead to understanding and empathy. Excitation Transfer Theory suggests that emotions and arousal can spill over from one context to another, leading individuals to transfer their emotional energy from one situation to another unrelated situation. Example: When someone is frustrated at work due to a difficult boss, they may not express their frustration directly at work due to fear of repercussions. Instead, they might go home and argue with their partner, transferring their work-related frustration to their home life. Aggression and Its Reduction: It is suggested that aggression can be reduced by distracting the aggressor with humor, acknowledging and validating the aggressor's feelings, and empathy. Catharsis theory suggests that expressing aggression can reduce aggressive feelings. Punching a pillow is a common example of catharsis, but it may not effectively reduce aggression; however, exercising is a healthier way to manage aggression. Prejudice is defined as a preconceived opinion that is not based on reason or actual experience. Stereotypes are defined as generalizations about groups based on inferences about groups' social roles and characteristics. Discrimination is defined as treatment based on group membership. Prejudice and discrimination often arise from competition over limited resources. People use stereotypes to simplify their social world and reduce the amount of thinking they have to do when they meet a new person. Stereotypes also help people to express their collective identity and justify their actions or attitudes toward other groups. Stereotypes occur when individuals make assumptions about others based on their group membership, often leading to incorrect and unfair judgments. Fundamental attribution error attributes behavior to character, not situation. Ultimate attribution error applies this to entire groups, reinforcing stereotypes. In-group and out-group biases arise from the human tendency to categorize people into groups, leading to preferential treatment of in-group members and discrimination against out-group members. Out-group homogeneity occurs when individuals perceive members of an out-group as being more similar to each other than they are, reinforcing stereotypes and biases. Ethnocentrism arises from the belief that one's own cultural or social group is superior, which can result in prejudiced attitudes and discriminatory behaviors towards other groups. The minimal group paradigm illustrates that simply categorizing individuals into groups, even based on trivial criteria, can lead to in-group favoritism and out-group discrimination. Example: Eye Color Experiment- A teacher divided her classroom into groups based on eye color, treating one group more favorably than the other. This led to jealousy and hostility between the groups. The teacher arbitrarily categorized students by eye color. Favoritism towards one group led to negative feelings in the other group. This experiment demonstrated how minimal group distinctions can create prejudice. Stereotype threat is a psychological phenomenon where individuals underperform in areas where they feel their group is stereotypically expected to do poorly. This can be countered by reinforcing positive self-images and focusing on individual abilities. Example: Math Performance Study- A study on men and women showed that when women were told there were no gender differences in a math test, their performance was similar to men's. When informed of potential gender differences, women's performance decreased. Men's performance improved when reminded of the stereotype. Reducing prejudice and stereotype threat involves creating environments where individuals are aware of their biases, encouraged to affirm their strengths, and engage in cooperative activities with diverse groups. Example: Robber's Cave Study- A study at a summer camp divided boys into two groups, leading to competition and prejudice. Cooperative tasks were later introduced to reduce hostility. Initial competition increased negative perceptions. Cooperative tasks, like fixing a water tank and pulling a truck, reduced prejudice and increased friendships. Intergroup bias is characterized by stereotypes, prejudice, and discrimination, which can be explicit or implicit. Understanding these biases is crucial for addressing and reducing them. The contact hypothesis suggests that intergroup contact can reduce hostility. Biased Information Processing: Biased information processing occurs when stereotypes influence how individuals interpret and remember information, often leading to confirmation of existing stereotypes. Illusory Correlation Experiment - Participants read about actions of members from two groups, A and B. Despite equal ratios of positive and negative actions, participants overestimated negative behaviors of the minority group B. Distinctive events, such as negative actions by minority groups, are more memorable. This leads to illusory correlations, reinforcing negative stereotypes about minority groups. Concrete descriptions focus on specific actions and details. Abstract descriptions focus on general traits and intentions. Out-group Homogeneity Effect: The out-group homogeneity effect is the tendency to perceive members of an out-group as more similar to each other than members of one's in-group. This effect contributes to stereotyping and prejudice. Example: Princeton and Rutgers Study- Students from Princeton and Rutgers were shown videos of other students making decisions. They perceived more similarity among out-group members than in-group members. Participants generalized the behaviors of out-group members more than in- group members. This perception of homogeneity supports the formation and maintenance of stereotypes. Automatic and Controlled Processing in Stereotyping: Stereotyping involves both automatic and controlled cognitive processes. Automatic processes are quick and unconscious, while controlled processes are deliberate and conscious. Self-Fulfilling Prophecy: is when an individual's expectations about another person lead to the fulfillment of those expectations. Strategies to reduce prejudice and stereotype threat include increasing awareness, promoting positive self-affirmation, and fostering intergroup contact. Social identity theory suggests that individuals derive part of their identity from the groups they belong to. This can lead to behaviors such as basking in reflected glory, where individuals associate themselves with successful groups to enhance their self-esteem. This is evident in sports fans who wear team colors after a victory. Cognitive Perspective on Stereotyping: The cognitive perspective suggests that stereotyping is an inevitable process due to the necessity of categorization. This perspective explains how basic cognitive processes such as categorization, construal, expectations, and attributions contribute to stereotyping and prejudice.