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The Psychological Need to Belong Psychological Needs ​ Four psychological needs ○​ Self esteem ○​ Control ​ Desire to have control over self and social environment ​ Psychological reactance- unpleasant reaction one has in response...

The Psychological Need to Belong Psychological Needs ​ Four psychological needs ○​ Self esteem ○​ Control ​ Desire to have control over self and social environment ​ Psychological reactance- unpleasant reaction one has in response to perception that someone else is undermining their sense of control ○​ Meaning in life ○​ Belonging ​ Need threat model- explains how people respond to belonging threats across three stages: reflexive, reflective, resignation ○​ Belonging threat detected → reflexive stage→ reflective stage→ resignation stage Belonging threats ​ Types ○​ Rejection- declaration by individual or group they do not want to be in company of another individual ​ More direct ○​ Ostracism-being ignored/excluded, often occurs without explanation or explicit negative attention ​ More passive ○​ Loneliness-perception that one’s social needs are not being met by quantity or quantity of social relationships ​ Different ways to experimentally manipulate belonging threats ○​ Cyberball (ostracism) ​ Three players but 2 are computers and never throw ball to them ​ Simulates exclusion in a virtual ball tossing game ○​ “Get acquainted” paradigm (rejection) ○​ “Forever alone” paradigm (loneliness) ​ Inclusion condition ​ Rewarding relationships throughout life ​ Long and stable marriage ​ Lifelong friendships ○​ Primed to link sense of inclusion ​ Exclusion condition ​ Told personality leads to poor relationships throughout life ​ Multiple, unsuccessful marriage ​ Most relationships disappear by mid 20s  ​ Vicarious rejection following political elections (Claypool et al, 2020) ○​ Vicarious rejection- experiencing social pain by perceiving someone else get rejected ​ Predicted Ps who vote for losing candidate will experience lower belonging ​ Ps reported basic needs one day prior to 2016 election (Time 1) and one day after election (Time 2); also reported who they voted for at T2 ​ Results: Clinton voters experienced lower belonging after she lost ​ Trump voters belonging did not increase (i.e. no perception of greater inclusion) Reflexive stage ​ Reflexive stage- stage concerned with the immediate impact of exclusion; how does it feel to be excluded? ○​ Exclusion results in psychological​pain ​ Often results in emotions of sadness and anger ○​ Same part of brain that processes physical pain also processes psychological pain- dorsal anterior cingulate cortex ○​ Giving people pain medicine reduces feelings of social pain (DeWall 2010) ​ Does exclusion hurt less if one is excluded by someone they don’t care about? ○​ Yes-exclusion causes pain even when people are knowingly excluded by: ​ A stranger or non group member ​ A computer ​ A member of the KKK ​ These findings are consistent with sociometer theory (Leary, 2005) The impact of gender-exclusive language on women’s anticipated ostracism(Rosenberger & Claypool, 2023) ​ Gender exclusive language ○​ Goal- Wanted to replicate and extend past work demonstrating perceiving gender exclusive language is a belonging threat ○​ IV: gender inclusive vs exclusive language in job ad ○​ DV: perceived sexism, anticipated ostracism, job based motivation ○​ Results: female Ps who saw gender exclusive ad were less motivated to apply for job; this was mediated via perceiving the ad as more sexist and anticipating more ostracism ​ Subtle cues from the social environment can also induce belonging threats (ambient belonging) Reflective Stage ​ Reflective Stage concerned with how people respond to and cope with perceived belonging threats; what do people do when excluded?  ​ Social Monitoring System– following exclusion, the psychological mechanism that orients us toward social cues in the environment that signal opportunities to restore belonging ​ Following exclusion, people are quicker to identify smiling faces in a crowd of people (DeWall et al., 2009) ○​ Goal-Ps randomly assigned to one of three conditions in the Forever Alone paradigm ​ Future belonging ​ Future alone ​ Misfortune control ○​ Ps tasked with identifying a target face in a “crowd” of other faces ○​ Smiling cue suggests someone to interact with, ○​ faster times to identify happy faces when “forever alone” ○​ Results: Ps induced to feel “forever alone” were quicker to identify smiling faces ​ Follow-up studies replicate these effects using eye-tracking methodology ​ Following exclusion, people are better at discerning real vs fake smiles (Bernstein et al., 2008) ○​ Goal-Ps randomly assigned to feel excluded, included, or neutral ○​ Ps tasked with discerning whether a picture of someone’s smile was genuine or not ○​ Results: Ps induced to feel excluded were better at identifying the real smiles ​ Feeling excluded results in greater perceptual sensitivity to social cues that signal potential affiliation partners ​ Participants who thought about exclusion experience were better at identifying real vs fake ​ Does exclusion literally feel cold? (Zhong and Leonardelli, 2008) ○​ Embodied cognition-cognition is influenced by physical experiences ​ Goal-Social exclusion may evoke literal coldness because of social closeness is associated with “warmth” ○​ Predicted Ps who experience exclusion (via cyberball) will be more likely to prefer warm (vs cold) food and drinks ○​ Results: excluded Ps preferred warm foods to “alleviate” the coldness of ostracism ​ Further evidence of the link between physical pain and social pain Resignation stage ​ Resignation stage- stage concerned with chronic belonging threats; how do people feel and respond to long form exclusion?  ○​ Less known about this stage relative to others in the need threat model ​ Chronic exclusion linked to ○​ Increased hypersensitivity to social exclusion cues ○​ Serve as additional belonging threats ​ People who experience long term forms of social exclusion are hypersensitive to threats going forward ​ Self fulfilling prophecy ○​ Used to being excluded will engage in behavior or distancing myself so I don't put myself in an opportunity to risk exclusion ○​ Decreased desire to restore psychological needs when threatened (Zadro 2004) ​ Less likely to restore basic needs even when lowered despite being important for wellbeing ​ Can nostalgia buffer against loneliness (Zhou et al 2008) ○​ Examined if feeling lonely prompts people to feel nostalgic and if so can nostalgia increased perceived social support ○​ Experiment 2 ​ IV: loneliness (high vs low) ​ Participants read altered version of a loneliness scale ​ DV: nostalgia and perceived social support ​ Results: Ps induced to feel lonely perceived low social support, but loneliness also triggered feelings of nostalgia, which then raised perceived social support ​ Provides support for SMS by demonstrating people naturally gravitate towards nostalgia because nostalgic memories are often very socially themed Close Relationships and Self Concept Clarity Self Other Overlap ​ Self other overlap- extent to which include close others traits, characteristics, and values into own self concept ○​ Social cognitive approach to understanding closeness via the merging of two mental representations (self and other) ​ INSERT GRAPH ○​ 17% people have a close relationship reflected in self aspects that make up their self concept (via the MSF, McConnell) Self and relationships ​ Where does closeness come from in romantic relationships? (Tomlinson and Aron, 2013) ○​ Explored perceptions of partner closeness (IOS -perceived) and partners relationship satisfaction as origins for closeness (IOS) ○​ Ps in romantic relationship reported perceived partner satisfaction, closeness (IOS), and partner closeness (IOS perceived) ○​ Results: perceived partner satisfaction fosters greater perceptions of partner closeness (IOS perceived) which then enhances closeness (IOS) ​ Perceiving partner satisfaction results in feeling closer through inclusion of other and self ​ Seeing partner satisfied in relationships feels like they include you in their self concept ​ Partner perceptions influence relationship development and can explain relationship tension ​ Past work shown pets are include in one's self concept to same extent as siblings ​ Do relationships with pets impact well being? (McConnell et al, 2019) ○​ Families are important source of social support and greater inclusion of family predicts greater well being ○​ Predicted pets positively impact well being to extent they are viewed as family and anthropomorphized-ascribing humanness to non human agents ○​ Two studies support prediction ○​ Viewing one's pet as family (IOS) positively impacts well being due to increased anthropomorphism ​ Give human like traits and treat like no different ​ Pets impact wellbeing to extent they are ascribed social capacity ​ Jealousy of a romantic rival alters self view (Slotter et al 2013) ○​ Predicted Ps would alter self views to be more similar to rival that they believed their partner found attractive out of jealousy  ○​ Ps rated themselves on various traits, including identifying a trait that does not define them (“not me” trait) ○​ Asked to think about their romantic partner interacting with an attractive potential rival in one of three ways: ​ Neutral condition ​ Think about partner interacting with rival but normal and nothing happening between them ​ Rival flirtation condition ​ Rival flirting with romantic partner but partner not doing it back ​ Partner flirtation condition ​ Rival and partner flirting with each other ○​ Ps shown profile of rival featuring the “not me” trait, then evaluated themselves on various traits again ○​ Results: Ps in partner flirtation condition reported greater value of “not me” traits compared to Ps in other two conditions ​ Jealousy can motivate people to shift self concept to align with romantic desire’s interests Self concept clarity ​ Explaining sadness felt following romantic breakup (Slotter et al, 2010) ○​ Self concept clarity- extent to which one’s self concept is clearly defined in one’s mind ○​ Prediction- when couples break up, the sense of interdependence between two partners is disrupted (low SCC), resulting in distress (sadness) ○​ Study 1A- Ps recalled a recent breakup, and asked to report current SCC and how much change they perceived in their self after breakup ​ Result: more perceived change → lower SCC ​ SCC can explain sadness felt following romantic breakups (Slotter et al, 2010) ○​ Study 2 ​ IV: Blog post type- recent breakups, career changes, or other topics not related to life change ​ DV: SCC-coded blog posts for words reflecting low SCC (confused, uncertain) ​ DV: distress (via text analysis) ​ Results: Ps who wrote about breakups expressed less SCC than Ps who wrote other types of posts; SCC mediates the relationship between breaking up and emotional distress  ​ Breakup makes you feel sad because its lowering sense of interdependence and now can’t define self without that person Parasocial Relationships ​ Parasocial relationships (PSRs) – one-sided relationships with celebrities, fictional characters, and other media figures ​ Examining the social surrogacy hypothesis (Derrick et al., 2009) ○​ Social surrogacy hypothesis – PSRs provided by watching one’s fav. TV show can restore belonging ○​ Study 1 – Ps reported how likely they are to engage in different activities (e.g., watching TV, exercising, listening to music) when feeling lonely ​ Results: Positive relationship between perceived loneliness and watching fav. TV show ○​ Study 2 – experiment ​ IV #1: Belonging threat: Reflect on an interpersonal conflict vs. control ​ IV #2: Write about fav. TV show vs. write about “whatever’s on TV” ​ DV: How much time Ps spend writing about TV ​ Results: Ps induced to feel low belonging spent more time writing (thinking) about their fav. TV show ​ Provides evidence of social monitoring system ​ Examining the narrative-assimilation hypothesis (Gabriel & Young, 2011) ○​ Narrative-assimilation hypothesis – experiencing a narrative leads one to psychologically become a part of the collective described in the narrative ​ Based on past evidence that people temporarily adopt traits from characters they identify with (Sestir & Green, 2010) ○​ Ps first completed measure of collective self-construal (tendency to identify strongly w/ groups) ○​ Ps randomly assigned to read chapters from Harry Potter (wizard condition) or Twilight (vampire condition) ○​ Ps then responded to items assessing narrative assimilation ​ Vampire items – “How long could you go without sleep?”, “How sharp are your teeth?” ​ Wizard items – “Do you think, if you tried really hard, you could make an object move just using your mind?” ○​ Results: Ps who tend to identify w/ groups were more likely to assimilate aspects of narrative into their self-concept ​ PSRs have implications for shaping self-concept ​ PSRs impact perceptions of body image (Young et al., 2012)  ○​ PSR-moderation hypothesis – PSRs w/ a media figure increases the likelihood of assimilating, rather than contrasting, the PSR’s body to the self due to a better understanding of who the celebrity “is” (personality) ​ Assimilation →perceived similarity ​ Contrast → perceived dissimilarity ○​ Female Ps wrote about their favorite female celebrity and responded to measures assessing: ​ Perceived personality similarity (via the IOS scale) ​ Perceived body similarity (via the IOS scale) ​ Body satisfaction ​ ○​ Results: Greater perceived personality similarity w/ celebrity predicts greater body satisfaction via greater perceived body similarity ​ PSRs and political behavior (Gabriel et al., 2018) ○​ Examined how PSRs w/ Donald Trump via The Apprentice impacted propensity to vote for him in the 2016 presidential election ○​ Predicted that exposure to Trump on TV would: ​ Predict forming PSR w/ him ​ Lead to favorable attitudes toward him ​ Increase likelihood of voting for him ​ Show stronger effects among voters less likely to support Republican candidates by default ○​ Mass survey measuring: ​ The Apprentice/Celebrity Apprentice viewing history ​ Parasocial bonds w/ Trump ​ Emotional involvement in TV and TA/CA (narrative transportation)  ​ Political attitudes and voting behavior ○​ Hypothesis 1 – Forming PSR w/ Trump ​ Ps who watched TA more likely to have PSR w/ Trump ○​ Hypotheses 2 & 3 – Attitudes toward Trump and Voting Behavior ​ Ps who had stronger PSR w/ Trump had more positive attitudes and were more likely to vote for him ○​ Results-Ps who had stronger PSR w/ Trump had more positive attitudes and were more likely to vote for him ○​ Takeaway: PSRs are powerful that they even influence who we vote for ​ 2019 presidential election in Ukraine is another recent example Nostalgia ​ Nostalgia – ambivalent self-conscious emotion that people feel when reflecting on pleasant, often social, memories about our distant past ​ Nostalgia’s rooted in appraisals of: ○​ Pleasantness ○​ Uniqueness ○​ Psychological distance ○​ Irretrievable loss ​ Event Reflection Task – paradigm wherein Ps reflect on either a nostalgic or ordinary memory ​ Nostalgic vs. Ordinary Memories ○​ More social content ○​ More attachment related content ○​ More personal agency ​ Nostalgia has a variety of psychological functions ○​ Social function – nostalgia heightens a sense of social connection ​ Nostalgia buffers against loneliness (Zhou et al., 2008) ​ Nostalgia counteracts social anxiety by enhancing interpersonal competence (Dai et al., 2024)  ​ Ps induced to feel lonely perceived lower social support, but loneliness also triggered feelings of nostalgia, which then raised perceived social support ​ Experiencing social anxiety lowers interpersonal competence, but social anxiety also triggers nostalgia, which then increases interpersonal competence ​ Existential function – nostalgia provides a sense of meaning in life and control ○​ Nostalgic attitudes characterized by greater importance (Togans & McConnell, 2024) ​ Self-related function – nostalgia evokes positive self-knowledge ○​ Nostalgia can help restore self-concept clarity (Jiang et al., 2020) ○​ Nostalgia enhances well-being by augmenting authenticity (Kelley et al., 2022)  ​ Feeling nostalgic improves well-being, and this occurs because nostalgia increases perceptions of authenticity ​ Nostalgia’s influence on consumer behavior (Zhou et al., 2019) ○​ Examined how nostalgic food labels influence consumer behavior ○​ Predicted that nostalgic labels would increase purchase intentions and actual consumption due to a heightened sense of comfort ○​ Study 2 ​ IV: food labels (nostalgic vs. descriptive) ​ DV: Purchase intention ​ DV: Perceived comfort ○​ Results: Nostalgic food labels associated w/ greater purchase intention due to heightened sense of comfort Culture and the Self Culture ​ Cultural dimensions-psychological constructs/variables that can be used to explain cultural differences in behavior and cognition ○​ Individualism-Collectivism ○​ Self construal ○​ Analytic holistic thinking ​ Dialectical thinking Individualism-Collectivism (IC) ​ Individualism-characteristic of cultures whose people tend to be motivated by their own personal preferences, needs, and rights ○​ US, Canada, Germany, New Zealand ​ Collectivism- characteristic of cultures whose people tend to be motivated by their social groups, (friends and family) preferences, needs, and rights ○​ China, South Korea, Ecuador, Colombia  ​ Dining experiences ○​ Sit around table and get own individual meal ○​ Dim sum or korean bbq-more collective and small dishes to share collectively ​ Music ○​ Most popular genre is rap and hip hop-individual ​ Materialism ○​ Kpop-group acts and focus on similarity and conformity IC and Trust ​ I-C influences who we trust and cooperate with (Van Hooren, 2015) ○​ Goal- I-C results in differences in how people view ingroup and outgroup members (Us vs them) ​ Collective-cooperation with ingroup members is high, but less so for outgroup ​ Individual- same pattern, but better at forming new ingroups with outgroup members than collective ○​ Trust radius-scope of people to whom one extends a certain level of trust ​ Extend to willing to trust alot and broad or narrow trust radius ○​ Hypothesis: Individualistic associated with broader trust radicus, and collectivist with narrower trust radius ○​ Method: generated trust radius scores using data from the world values survey (asses attitudes towards topics across world) ​ Trust level ​ Ingroup trust ​ Outgroup trust ​ Correlated with above with country level scores of I-C ○​ Results: Individualistic associated with broader trust radius, collectivistic with narrower trust radius ​ I-C influences how permeable we see our social ingroups and the extent to which we engage in prosocial behavior ​ When come from coll -hard boundaries on in and out group-want to cater to in group ​ 1.i am a sister ​ I am a daughter ​ I am a girlfriend ​ I am jewish ​ I am thoughtful Self Construal ​ Self construal theory- the self can be framed in independent and interdependent ways  ○​ The way individuals perceive, define, and understand themselves in relation to others and the world. It reflects the cognitive framework that shapes how people think about their identity, prioritize their goals, and navigate social relationships. ○​ Independent self construal- sense of self defined by autonomy, uniqueness, and self expression ​ Most prevalent in individualistic cultures ​ See self as independent from others ​ Value sense of agency, freedom of speech ○​ Interdependent self construal- sense of self defined by social relationships and feeling connected to others ​ Most prevalent in collectivistic cultures ​ Graph ○​ Independent ​ X’s in bubble reflect traits and what makes them unique to others Self Construal-Implications ​ Implications of self construal on behavior and cognition ○​ Self concept content-twenty statements test (Kanagawa et al, 2001) ​ Independence → more trait descriptors (assertive, smart, funny) ​ Interdependence → more social descriptions (daughter, barista, student) ○​ Communication behavior ​ Independent → direct, overt, communicates mainly via spoken word ​ Interdependent → indirect, subtle, large emphasis on nonverbal cues to communicate ​ Cultural differences in digital communication behavior (Togans et al, 2021) ○​ Examined cross cultural differences in using emojis when texting; do face to face patterns in communication translate to digital communication? ○​ Prediction: East Asian Ps (interdependent SC) will use more emojis than American Ps (independent) in face of threatening scenarios because… ​ Interdependent SC associated with higher context communication (more nonverbals) ​ Interdependent SC more concerned with other face ○​ Method - Study 2 ​ IV 1- culture (East Asian vs American) ​ IV 2- scenario valence (face threatening vs non face threatening) ​ IV 3- emoji valence (positive vs negative) ​ DV- number of emojis used across all messages  ​ Results: East Asian Ps used more emojis than Americans in general, but especially in face threatening scenarios ​ Suggests having an interdependent SC results in greater social sensitivity Culture and Belonging ​ Self construal explains cultural differences in response to ostracism (Ren et al, 2013) ○​ Examined how self construal (Chinese vs American Ps) can moderate how people respond to social exclusion via cyberball ○​ Results: when excluded, Chinese Ps showed better coping with negative affect than American Ps ​ Interdependent SC acts as a buffer for negative feelings due to greater accessibility of close others Culture and Attitudes Does a person’s behavior reflect their attitude? A cultural model of attitudes ​ Person centric vs normative contextual models of attitudes ○​ Person centric - attitudes are an integral part of an individual's sense of self and are personal preferences reflecting information about the actor ​ More in western countries (USA, Canada, Western Europe) ​ Regardless of context and the influence of norms, one’s attitude should correspond to behavior ○​ Normative contextual - attitudes are the response to the norms and contexts in which attitudes are developed or expressed in; views people (and attitudes) as varying across contexts ​ More in Asia ​ One’s behavior is a direct mix of personal preferences weighted against the influence of the contexts norm ​ Norms influence behavior in all cultures, but cultures that value the NC model always consider norms in their attributional judgments ​ Implications for understanding attitudes? ○​ Cultural differences in attitude expression ○​ Cultural differences in decision making ○​ Attitude strength as a concept might be culturally biased ​ Theoretical rationale only applies to PC culture not NC Culture and Accessibility ​ Cultural differences in attitudinal accessibility and decision making (Barnes and Shavitt, 2023)  ○​ Goal- Past work shows greater accessibility → faster decision making and greater attitude behavior correspondence ​ This work explores whether this pattern generalizes across cultures in 25 studies ○​ Method ​ IV 1- culture (IND vs COL) ​ IV 2- accessibility (high vs low)-Ps rehearse their attitudes towards object or not ​ DV- response latency, attitude choice correspondence ○​ Results ​ Greater accessibility → faster decision making across cultures Greater accessibility → greater attitude choice correspondence (but only for IND cultures) ​ For COL cultures, attitude choice correspondence weakened in socially constrained contexts (e.g picking vacation spot that in laws would enjoy) ○​ Implications ​ Accessible attitudes have greater utility in IND than COL cultures where prioritizing personal preferences is the norm Culture and advertising ​ Cultural differences in advertisements (Hand and Shavitt, 1994) ○​ Study 1: content analysis-examined print ads (newspapers, magazines) from the USA and South Korea ​ Results- ads in USA placed greater emphasis on themes of individualism and South Korea emphasis on themes of collectivism ○​ Study 2- experiment- examined matching effects directly ​ Results- South Korean Ps reported greater intention to buy product if ad emphasis collectivism, whereas American Ps reported greater intention if ad emphasized individualism Dissonance Cross culturally ​ Kitayama et al (2004)- Cultural differences in dissonance “Is There Any ‘‘Free’’ Choice?” ○​ Goal: Examined whether self construal could explain cultural differences in dissonance effects ○​ Experiment 2 ​ IV 1 - Ps self construal: JApanese (interdependent) vs American (independent) ​ IV 2- social reference for ranking: self vs average college student ​ Ranked CDs →.market survey/pick between CDs ranked 5 and 6 → ranked CDs again  ​ DV: spreading of alternatives-following a decision, individuals evaluate the chosen alternative more positively and rejected alternative more negatively than they did before the decision ​ Results- Japanese Ps who ranked CDs based on others (vs the self) reported greater spread of alternatives (more dissonance) than did American Ps ​ Only motivation to justify decisions if social standing implicated ○​ Experiment 4- Ps rank pop CDs ​ IV 1- Ps self construal: Japanese (interdependent) vs European American (independent) ​ **IV 2- social prime: none vs poster with faces ​ DV: spreading of alternatives ​ Results: replicated the results from previous experiment ​ Ps with interdependent SC only experience dissonance when their cognitive inconsistencies implicate their social connections with others Cultural thinking styles ​ Analytic vs holistic thinking ○​ Analytic- a type of thinking people focus on properties of objects without considering their surrounding context ​ Stems from ancient greek philosophers ○​ Holistic-a type of thinking that people focus on the overall context, particularly in the ways objects relate to each other ​ Stems from confucianism, taoism, and buddhism ​ Most prevalent in East Asian countries ○​ Used to find cultural differences in… ​ Fundamental attribution error ​ Holistic less likely to succumb to FAE ​ Can be explained via P-C vs N-C model of attitudes ​ Inferring others emotional states ​ Photo where main figure smiling but background frowning-assume main less positive ​ Dialectical thinking-style of thinking people tolerate and accept apparently contradictory information ○​ More prevalent in East Asian culture than Western ○​ See world as shade of gray instead of black and white ​ Heavily related to holistic thinking ○​ Yin Yang symbol ​ Outline border-context  ​ Inside symbol-interconnection ​ Turning line-change ​ Contrasting colored dots-contradiction ​ Dialecticalism and conflict resolution (Pen and Nisbett, 1999) ○​ American (non DT) vs Chinese (DT) Ps ○​ Ps told a story about a child parent conflict; asked to identify- ​ Which party is at fault for starting conflict ​ Which party should apologize ○​ Results- American Ps more likely to choose sides, and Chinese more likely to conclude both parties are to blame ​ Show black and white vs gray thinking ○​ Study 2 ​ American (non DT) vs Chinese (DT) Ps ​ Presented a set of two contradictory scientific findings, asked to rate the plausibility of the findings ​ Results- American Ps more likely to view only one set of findings plausible, and Chinese viewed both sets of findings equally plausible ​ P’s that thought more dialectically were not as bothered (subj amb) by holding very ambivalent (obj amb) attitudes ​ Dialecticism and Emotional experiences (Schimmack et al, 2002) ○​ Explore how DT can explain cultural differences in experiencing positive and negative emotions ○​ Predicted relationship between pleasant and unpleasant emotions is less negative in Asian cultures than non due to DT ○​ Method- compared three country classifications ​ COL culture that embrace DT (Japan, South Korea, China) ​ COL cultures that do not embarrassed DT (Latin america) ​ IND cultures ○​ Ps from these cultures rated frequency of feeling pleasant (FPE) and unpleasant emotions (FUE) over the last month ○​ Results- relationship between FPE and FUE was negative across cultures, but was significantly less negative for cultures that embraced dialecticism ​ Reflects cultural value of balance and moderation in DT cultures vs intensity and extremity in non DT cultures