Introduction to Sociology - Soci1001 2.pdf

Introduction: What is Sociology? What is Sociology? systematic study of human social lives, groups, and societies - How did this world come about? - Why are our conditions of life so different from those of our parents and grandparents?...

Introduction: What is Sociology? What is Sociology? systematic study of human social lives, groups, and societies - How did this world come about? - Why are our conditions of life so different from those of our parents and grandparents? - What directions will change take in the future? How does sociology deal with social change and the rise of modernity? 1. Contour: What are the big features of these changes? 2. Cause: How can you explain them? 3. Comings: Where might it all be headed? (Utopian vs Dystopian view) 烏托邦與反烏托邦的觀點） What are the contemporary issues?當代的問題是什麼？ sociological imagination This concept encourages individuals to see personal troubles as linked to larger societal issues enables us grasp history and biography and the relations between the two within society allow us de-familiarise the familiar allow us to understand the larger historical scene in terms of its meaning for the inner life, and the external career of a variety of individuals. The world is divided into two parts Biography 傳記 History Individual experiences Social structure Private troubles Public issues Key areas of social imagination Questioning Challenging Radical 激進的 Debunking 揭露真相 The art of mistrust Imaginative Theoretical and empirical 理論與經驗 [ability to connect personal experiences with larger social forces] Example: Personal Perspective: An individual might feel frustrated and ashamed about being unemployed. Sociological Imagination: By applying sociological imagination, they can see that their unemployment is not just a personal failure but is influenced by larger economic trends, such as recessions, changes in industry, or shifts in labor demand. This understanding can help them realize they are part of a larger social issue affecting many others. What is sociology? Opening definition Sociology as imagination - as consciousness 意識 - as ways of thinking that deals with social phenomena Epistemology 認識論: The foundations of knowledge Evidence: Research techniques, issues of sampling, validity, reliability, etc. Examples: How has sociology been done? A triple life of social theory Content: Who are the main theorists and how do they develop their theories and concepts? Conditions: Where, when, and why did the theory develop? Consequences: What are the consequences of this theory being told? Has it had any impact? Five major sociological perspectives 1. The structural-functional perspective [The social as structure, function, and institution] society = complex system like human body → produce stability & solidarity relation btw parts & society importance of moral consensus道德共識 underline -> factors lead social cohesion社會凝聚力 ignore -> factors lead division & conflict Auguste Comte, Herbert Spencer, Emile Durkheim, Talcott Parsons, Robert Merton 2. Social-conflict perspective [The social as conflict of interest: power, war, and struggle] society = different groups pursuing their own interests conflict always present + certain group benefit more than others importance of divisions in society (class. gender,age,status,education…) → focus on power, inequality and struggle Karl Marx, Fredrick Engels, Du Bois, Ralf Dahrendorf 3. Social action/symbolic interaction perspective [The social explained as everyday drama]  pay attention to action and interaction of social member in forming society role of sociology: meaning of social action and interaction rather than in explaining what forces external to people cause them to act Max Weber, George Herbert Mead, Erving Goffman, George Homans, Peter Blau. 4. gender/feminist perspective [The social as gendered] gendered nature Challenges women’s unequal status and subordinate roles Slogan: “The personal is political” Early key figures: Harriet Martineau, Jane Addams, Ann Oakley, Arlie Hochschild Theoretical dilemmas in sociological thoughts: Human actions versus social structure Consensus共識 and conflict The problem of gender The shaping of the modern world The question of the west Connell’s southern theory ‘the claim of universality’ ‘reading from the center’ of West European and North American metropoles ‘gestures of exclusion’ ‘grant erasure’ of non-metropolitan worlds and experiences Connell proposes 3 possible ways of theory building: Pyramidal model (force southern fit into northern framework) Mosaic epistemology (base on own historical experience & cultures) Solidarity-based epistemology (mutual respect & interaction among different knowledge systems) Three Dimensions of Sociology 1. Scientific Sociology as a Tool for Technical Control Concept: Similar to natural sciences, sociology seeks to understand and control human behavior. Focus: Uses sociological knowledge to inform public policies and manage social issues effectively. 2. Interpretative Sociology as a Way of Understanding Concept: Aims to uncover the meanings behind human actions. Focus: Recognizes that actions may seem irrational to outsiders; emphasizes the importance of cultural context in interpreting behaviors. 3. Critical Sociology as a Way of Emancipation解放 Concept: Examines social institutions that perpetuate injustice, which are often viewed as "natural." Focus: Aims to challenge and change these institutions by revealing their constructed nature, promoting social justice and awareness of inequalities. The application of sociology Understanding social situations Awareness of cultural differences Assessment of the effects of policies Increase of self-knowledge Nyseth: “Embedded sociologists” Sociologists : work outside academia but apply sociological imagination, knowledge and research skills in the non-academic sectors such as NGOs, government and business. Lecture 2 Culture and Social Interaction in Everyday Life Definition of Culture A way of life shared by members of a society Components: Symbol sign, representation Language System of symbols Oral(spoken language) → written → digital language Beliefs Folklores, stories, myths Astrology, fortune telling, fung shui Religion Values Desirable/undesirable Good/bad Right/wrong Beautiful/ugly Norms Proscriptive : should NOT do Prescriptive : Should do Mores : moral significance (formal) Folkways : routine and casual interactions Material culture artefacts文物 (tangible human creations) Other related concepts Cultural relativism (cultural specific) vs cultural universalism (ok for all culture) Ethnocentrism (use own culture judge other cultures) e.g. eurocentrism(euro / west dominate non-western culture) Cultural shock Cultural lag (some cultural system change faster than nearby vulture system) Cultural diversity: Dominant culture(主流文化是一種被社會廣泛接受的文化) - Counterculture(相反) -Subculture 次文化 Reproduction of Culture : Socialization  Primary socialization (family) Secondary socialization (school, peers, church, the media and workplace) Theories on understanding of the lifelong process of socialization Sigmund Freud’s personality structure: - Id – Ego – Superego 本我——自我——超我 Jean Piaget’s cognitive development Lawrence Kohlberg’s moral development Erik H. Erikson’s psychosocial development Status, Role and Identity Status social position, form part of person’s identity 1. Ascribed Status received at birth born into a royal family (royalty) | Gender identity (male or female) | Ethnic heritage (Asian). 2. Achieved Status reflects personal ability and effort Becoming a doctor or lawyer through education and hard work. Earning a promotion at work. Engaging in community service and being recognized as a leader. 3. Master Status special importance for an individual → shape a person’s entire life A person's occupation (e.g., a celebrity or politician) may be seen as their master status. A disability or chronic illness : affect how individuals are treated and how they view themselves. Race or ethnicity: influencing social interactions and societal perceptions. Role behaviour expected of someone who holds a particular status. 1. Role conflict conflict among the roles corresponding to two or more statuses 2. Role strain tension among the roles connected to a single status. Identity 1. Social identity The characteristics or statuses attributed to an individual by others, indicating who they are e.g. chinese ,student, father, female, married woman 2. Self-identity  process of self-development: individuals form a unique sense of themselves and their relationship to the world. 3. Stigma negative identity Sociological Perspectives on Social Structures in Everyday Life 1. Micro Sociology European tradition: Phenomenology - Alfred Schutz and his precedents Peter Berger and Thomas Luckmann American tradition Symbolic interactionism (George H. Mead and Herbert Blumer) Other major precedents Erving Goffman and Harnold Garfinkel Other micro-sociological theories Social exchange theory, rational choice theories 2. The Social Construction of Reality 3. Symbolic interactionism Contrast with macro sociologists who view the self as a passive entity Self as an active agent Charles Horton Cooley: Looking glass self We imagine how we present ourselves to others We imagine how others evaluate us We develop some sort of feelings about ourselves as a result of these impressions Mead: The social self self → self-awareness & self-image self develop only with social experience= exchange of symbol Understanding intention requires imagining the situation from the other’s point of view 了解意圖需要從對方的角度想像情況 The self: ‘I’ (the active side of the self) & ‘me’ (the objectified self, i.e., how we imagine ourselves as others see us) The generalized other: society’s attitude , viewpoints, expectation → person’s behavior 4. Herbert Blumer: The way people view objects depends on the meaning these things have for them. This meaning comes about as a result of a process of interaction. The meaning of an object can change over time 5. The tenets of symbolic interactionism: focus on the subjective aspects of social life Humans are active, creative and pragmatic actors務實的演員 We act on the basis of symbolic meanings which we give to objects We retrieve meanings from the process of interactions We rehearse imaginatively alternative lines of action Meanings are the result of the interpretive procedures employed by actors within interaction context. Society is organised and patterned interactions among individuals Study of Society = Study of Everyday Life 1. Non-verbal communication exchange of meaning through facial expression, gestures and movement of the body. The face, gestures and emotion Face – self-esteem 2. Social rules and talk Ethnomethodology folk, or lay, methods – people use to make sense of what others do, and particularly what they say Meaningfulness of our daily social life depends on the sharing of unstated shared cultural assumptions about what is said and why. Conversational analysis: smaller ‘filler’ words ( ‘umm’ and ‘ah’) precise timing of interchanges換乘的精確時間 (pauses, interruptions, and overlaps). 3. Interaction in time and space All interaction is situated – it occurs in a particular place and has a specific duration in time, e.g., work from 9 a.m. to 5 p.m. and during weekdays (Time-space convergence) 4. Goffman’s dramaturgy social life is being a theatre drama Front stage: social occasions / encounters in which individuals act out formal roles. The ‘personal front’ Back stage: people assemble the ‘props’ and prepare themselves for interaction in the more formal settings Actor - Role, identity, and role performance, conflict and strain - Appearance (dress, props) and manner as sign-vehicles - Teamwork: Interactions with other people, e.g., actors/audiences - Impression management: expression given and expression given off. Encounters (focused interaction), markers / brackets ( distinguish episodes of focused interaction from the one before, and from unfocused interaction taking place in the background). Application : The Managed Heart (Hochschild 1983): The case of emotional labour from 19th century factory boy → 20th flight attendance Three type of Labour Physical labour (Manual work requiring physical effort) Mental labour (Cognitive work involving thinking, planning, and problem-solving) Emotional labour – management of feeling to create a publicly observable facial and bodily display  - require face-to-face or voice-to-voice contact with the public. - require the worker to produce an emotional state in another person. - allow the employer, through training and supervision, to exercise a degree of control over the emotional activities of employees. Feelings and emotion: - Feelings are not ‘stored’ inside us, and they are not independent of acts of management. In managing feeling, we contribute to the creation of it. - Acts of emotion management are not simply private acts, they are used in exchanges under the guidance of feeling rules. - Feeling rules are standards used in emotional conversation to determine what is rightly owed and owing in the currency of feeling. From private to commercial uses of feeling: - What happens when the management of emotion comes to be sold as labor? - When it works, the work risks losing the signal function of feeling - When it does not work, the risk is losing the signal function of display From flight attendant to other labour in the service industry: - Sales, waiter/waitress, tour guide, travel agent, etc. Lecture 3 The Formation of Modern Societies Society refers to a group of people who share a culture and interact with each other within a defined territory Lenski’s idea of ‘socio-cultural evolution’ Hunting and gathering societies the use of primitive weapons to hunt animals and gather vegetation Horticultural and pastoral societies the use of hand tools to raise crops and the domestication of animals Agrarian societies: animal-drawn plow Industrial societies: mechanized large-scale production of goods Post-industrial societies (new form) the use of computers that support an information- based economy Enlightenment and the project of modernity ethos of enlightenment Human being as the main actor The idea of progress by a critique of reason The idea of science as truth The unity of humanity Modernity bright side: hope of progress, faith in knowledge, use of reason, freedom, equality and justice -> utopian society dark side: struggle and large-scale social conflicts, disintegration of systems, normlessness and alienation -> dystopian society Society as Progress: Comte, Evolution, Science and the Law of Development Glossary, Concepts and Ideas: positivism; evolutionism; progress; scientific method Auguste Comte: The first person to coin the term ‘sociology’ The task of sociology: ‘to be able to predict is to be able to control’ Sociology can be scientific: A hierarchy of science (mathematics – astronomy – physics – chemistry – biology –  sociology) Positivism and the scientific method Like biology: hence a biological analogy The classification of societies The laws of social change Law of the three stages of society Society as Function: Durkheim, Organic and Mechanical Solidarity, and Collective Conscience Glossary, Concepts and Ideas: structural functionalism; organic and mechanical solidarity; collective conscience; anomie; suicide; deviance; moral panic Emile Durkheim: The problem of solidarity Key questions: How are individuals made to feel part of a larger social collective? How are their desires constrained in ways that allow them to participate in this collective? How are the activities of individuals and other social units co-ordinated and adjusted to one another? The nature of society and the importance of moral regulation: Patterns of Behavior: Norms, values, and beliefs exist as objective social facts with a reality beyond individual lives. Social Structures: Once created, society demands obedience and takes on a life of its own. Society function: Society functions as a system where different institutions work together for the benefit of the whole. Basis Solidarity: Individuals must constrain desires to maintain a well-organized and harmonious society. Comparison of traditional and modern societies On social change Population increases Interaction of individuals increases Competition increases Division of labour - specialised roles Further differentiation Organic solidarity: mutual interdependence (sophisticated social order) Dark side of modernity - pathology Specialised division of labour and rapid expansion of industrial society threatens social solidarity. Cities might create problems – impersonality, alienation, disagreement, and conflict. Rise of anomie (normlessness)失範（無規範）的興起: an absence, breakdown, confusion and conflict of the norms of a society, e.g., suicide, marital break-down and industrial conflict. The famous case of suicide (Giddens and Sutton, Ch.1: 13-14): The most individualistic of acts can be explained by social forces The most personal act can be explained by social laws (sociological imagination) - This concept encourages individuals to see personal troubles (like suicidal thoughts) as linked to larger societal issues Durkheim’s mode of analysis: suicide as a social fact - social fact: values, norms, and structures that exist outside of the individual and influence behavior.  Rates of suicide occur in different patterns: highest among Protestant societies. Why? Links religion to social integration and then to suicide. And deductively, found to be highest among adults, men, the unmarried and those living in cities. Four types of suicide: egoistic, altruistic, anomic, fatalistic - links to integration and regulation Data: based on existing official statistics in different European countries Structural functionalism: (examine how social integration and regulation contribute to individual well-being) Functional interdependence and moral consensus Rapid industrialization -> social disintegration -> pathology (e.g., suicide) Protestant -> degree of social integration -> lack of the sense of belonging -> anomie -> suicide Society as Conflict: Marx, Class and Social Inequality Glossary, Concepts and Ideas: economic determinism; mode of production; surplus value; feudalism, capitalism, and socialism; ideology; class; class consciousness; dialectic; base-superstructure; alienation Karl Marx : The problem of social conflict Key questions: If a society is so rich, how could so many be so poor? How can this situation be changed? On class, social inequality and exploitation Members who share the same relationship to the ownership and control of property. Key to unlock the secret of the operation of capitalism. (sociological imagination) Leads to social conflicts (class struggle), or even social change (revolution). Capitalist society in Marxist’s view Ruling class: Owners of the means of production (capitalists)  Subject class: Non-owners of the means of production (proletariat) Residual class: Peasants, civil servants, middle class, etc. One of the Characteristics of capitalism: nature of wage labour A defining characteristic of capitalism where wage laborers (proletariat) lack ownership of production means. They must sell their labor to the ruling class (capitalists) for wages to survive, creating an exchange relationship. Relationship between owners and non-owners: These institutions help maintain the dominance of the capitalist class by protecting wealth and transmitting property across generations. Exploitation and Coercion The relationship between capitalists and workers is exploitative. Capitalists seek to accumulate wealth by minimizing labor costs and maximizing profit. Workers contribute to the capitalists' wealth while receiving wages that are significantly lower than the value of the goods they produce Mutually Dependent Capitalists and workers depend on each other, but the relationship is unequal and exploitative.(only look at surplus value) Economic Determinism Economic power is primary (economic determinism); other social institutions (family, education, politics, religion) are shaped by the economic system. On class and social change Mass Production System The rise of mass production increases worker employment under capitalist control. Alienation of Workers: Workers experience alienation at four levels: From the act of working.  From the products of their labor. From other workers. From their human potential. Class Consciousness階級意識: Workers in similar conditions develop awareness of their shared class identity and recognize their grievances委屈(lead to class solidarity) This awareness fosters class solidarity, especially during economic crises. Impact on Petite Capitalists: Polarisation of Classes階層兩極化 Small business owners (petite bourgeoisie) struggle to survive economically, often selling their businesses to larger enterprises and joining the working class. Class Polarization: This leads to the decline of the residual class, resulting in a society primarily divided into two classes: the proletariat and the capitalist. Class Struggle → The march to socialism/communism向社會主義/共產主義進軍 The ongoing struggle between these two classes is expected to result in significant social change, with the working class ultimately overthrowing the capitalist system in a march toward socialism or communism. Summary: 1. Dissatisfaction and alienation from work (acts of working; products of work; other workers; human potentials) 2. The Development of Class Consciousness 3. The Growth of Class Solidarity 4. The Polarisation of Classes 5. Class Struggle 6. The March to Socialism/Communism A modern case: Tian Yu’s story: From farm to factory, entering Foxconn A harsh production regime: Taylorism Discipline and punishment ‘A massive place of strangers’ The accumulation of despair  Rebuilding life The responses from different parties: the company, the enterprise union, the government Life and labor of a new generation: Is it possible to resist the modern production regime? Society as Disenchantment: Weber, Rationalisation and the Iron Cage of Bureaucracy Glossary, Concepts and Ideas: verstehen; ideal type; Protestant ethic; hermeneutics; rationalisation, iron cage of bureaucracy **合理化**是一個過程，傳統的、感性的思考方式被注重效率、邏輯和系統規劃所取代。它強調運用理 性和科學方法來實現目標和解決問題。 Max Weber : The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism Weber's Puzzle The emergence of rational capitalism in the 18th and 19th centuries, particularly among Protestants, raises questions about the connection between religious devotion and the pursuit of wealth. Spirit of Capitalism Refers to ideas and habits that encourage the rational pursuit of economic gain. Protestant Ethic Represents the belief in fulfilling one's duty to God through moral conduct in daily life. Weber's Thesis: Calvinism's Influence: As a key Protestant denomination, Calvinism encourages the rational pursuit of economic gain. While wealth was not the primary goal, its pursuit became a by-product of religious doctrine, giving worldly activities moral significance. Loss of Assurance: Unlike Roman Catholicism, which guaranteed salvation through church practices, the Reformation removed these assurances, leading Protestants to seek alternative signs of salvation. Worldly Success as a Sign: Success in business became interpreted as a sign of being saved. The concept of "vocation" expanded beyond the clergy to include all occupations. Investment Boost: This mindset contributed to significant investments and a boost in early capitalism. Elective Affinity: Weber argued that there is a strong connection between certain Calvinist beliefs and the ethical foundation of modern capitalism. Transformation of Religious Ethic: Over time, the initial religious enthusiasm of Calvinists faded, evolving into a strong work ethic focused on success and personal discipline. The problem of rationalisation Rationalization of Society: In pre-industrial societies, traditions bind individuals through values and beliefs passed down generations. In contrast, industrial societies are governed by rationality, emphasizing efficient means-to-ends calculations. Weber’s Seven Characteristics of Rational Social Organization: 1. Distinctive social institutions. 2. Large-scale organizations. 3. Specialized tasks. 4. Personal discipline. 5. Awareness of time. 6. Technical competence. 7. Impersonality. Process of Rationalization: The rise of modern societies is characterized by rationalization, driven by industrial growth and the development of the modern state, coupled with market rationality and bureaucratic structures. Few social spheres remain unaffected by this process. Dark Side of Modernity: Rationalization leads to a pessimistic outlook, as it undermines humanitarian goals in favor of bureaucratic administration. Instrumental calculation dominates social life, constraining individuals within the "iron cage" of bureaucracy, stifling their personal freedoms and creativity. Later Devlopment Lecture 4: Gender Trouble: Sexism, Patriarchy, and Feminism Open Discussions: Three major intellectual and political movements sparked the study of gender and sexuality Sexology:Rejecting the religious and moral teachings about how people ‘should’ behave Gay and lesbian liberation movement: Brought homosexuality into the public eye Second-wave feminism: examined gender relations, protested women’s unequal status and redefined the conception of gender and sexuality. Slogan: ‘The personal is political’ Key Terms of Analysis: Sex, Gender and Sexuality Sex: biological differences of the body - male, female Gender: social definitions of the sexes - women and men, femininity and masculinity Sexuality: sexual desire / sexual orientation - heterosexual and homosexual Identity: individual’s self-label regarding himself or herself - Chinese, working class, female Gender/ sexual identity: gender and sex that a person identifies with or others attributes to him or her - as a man, a woman, a straight man, a lesbian A Note on Chinese Terminology Biological sex 性 Culturally ascribed gender 性別 Sexuality 性性、性存在、性意識、性經驗、性相 (食、色, 性也。) :Eating (食) and sex (色) are both aspects of human nature. What is Feminism? Key Concerns of Feminism: Understanding Gender Relations: problematic Interconnected Inequalities Historical and Socio-Cultural Constructs Political Advocacy: Feminism is explicitly political First-Wave Feminism Movement: (women entering the public world) vote higher education and profession voice to the gov. Second-Wave Feminism: Challenges traditional views of female roles, including: ○ Subjection to male control. ○ Unequal in public sphere e.g. work ○ Responsibility for private sphere , housework and childcare. ○ Sexual passivity and automatic heterosexuality. Sexual Politics : Struggle in the public world (women’s labour) + Struggle inside the family and within the relationship(mother and housewife role) From identity politics to politics of difference (90s-) Major Terms of Criticism: Sexism: Discrimination: men have primacy over women Patriarchy: rule of father Phallocentrism: privileging of the masculine (the phallus) Essentialism versus Constructionism: On the origin of gender differences Essentialist position Biological Determinism Innate Characteristics: People are born as men and women with distinct characteristics attributed to their biological sex. Gender Inequality: Human biology naturally determines gender inequality Sociobiology and Sex Role Theory:  Functionalism: Explains gender inequality through biological and functional perspectives: ○ Men are aggressive and dominant; women are gentle and caring (Tiger and Fox’s ‘human biogrammer’). ○ Men are promiscuous; women are prudent (David Barash’s ‘male promiscuity’). ○ Men are instrumental; women are expressive (Parsons’s ‘sex role’ theory). Criticisms of Biological Determinism: Research often relies on animal behavior studies, which may not apply to humans. Average differences between genders are treated as categorical, overlooking overlaps in characteristics. Ethnocentrism: Assume white, middle-class, Western societies; ignore cultural diversity - Gender attributes vary significantly across different cultures, challenging the notion of a singular masculine or feminine ideal. failing to recognize non-binary identities such as hermaphrodites, berdache, transsexuals, and bisexuals. Constructionist Position Gender roles are culturally rather than biologically produced Gender socialisation begins as soon as an infant is born. Children are taught to conform to their feminine and masculine role as appropriate via the application of positive and negative sanctions. Marriage institutions, customs, religion, law, media, etc. have a significant role in shaping our gender and sexuality. Different cultures have different behaviors and interpretations of masculinity and femininity. Different cultures have unique interpretations of masculinity and femininity: Margaret Mead's Research (1935): Examined gender roles in three New Guinea tribes. Third Sex in Asia: Examples include hijra in India and kathoey (ladyboys) in Thailand. Gender Fluidity in Chinese Folktales: Characters like Guan-yin and stories like the Legend of the White Snake depict gender transformation. Criticisms: Questions arise about the origins of norms and values attached to gender roles and whose interests they serve.  There is an overemphasis on voluntary conformity to norms, neglecting structural and institutional factors that constrain gender behaviors. Doing and Making Gender – Symbolic interactionist approach sex, sex category(biological → individual’s gender identification), gender aim: Social Construction, Reinforcement of Gender Norms, Understanding Inequality, Identity Formation, Challenging Stereotypes Doing gender (individual level) Gender is a routine accomplishment embedded in everyday interaction Doing gender involves a complex of socially guided perceptual, interactional, and micro-political activities Doing gender means creating difference between women and men --- > reinforce the ‘essentialness’ of gender If we don’t do gender properly, we will be asked for ‘reasons’, leaving the institutional arrangements unquestioned. Making Gender (societal level) Actors enact, resist, or negotiate the world as given, and in so doing ‘make’ the world. The making -- > ‘reproduction’ of gender norms Unintended consequences 意想不到的後果 Human actions makegender ‘structures’ Interactions between agency and structure Bodily differences are important but they do not determine social arrangements - against biological and psychological determinism, dichotomy and dualism反對 生物和心理決定論、二分法和二元論 Gender and sexuality are culturally constructed but we also appreciate the agency of individuals - against mechanical reproduction of social life Undoing gender and unmaking gender (The possibility of change) individual: undo gender → make difference in our own lives societal: unmake gender norms & rules through collective action (i.e. feminist movement, gay and lesbian movement). Theories of Gender Inequality Functionalism how gender differences contribute to social stability and integration Sex role theories - Females act in expressive roles (providing care, security and emotional support to children) - Men perform instrumental roles (breadwinner of the family) Feminism 1. Liberal feminism explanations of gender inequalities in social and cultural attitudes and seek to work through the existing system 2. Socialist and Marxist feminism defeat both patriarchy and capitalism, and call for restructuring of the family, the end of ‘domestic slavery’ and the introduction of some collective means of carrying out child-rearing and household maintenance. 3. Radical feminism: men are responsible for and benefit from the exploitation of women. Patriarchy is a universal phenomenon that has existed across time and cultures. Family as the primary source of women’s oppression in society. Queer Theories: Butler’s Gender Trouble Butler argues that gender is not derived from biological sex but is produced through socially compelled rituals, influenced by compulsory heterosexuality. Illusion of Gender Core/ natural sex: The idea of an inherent gender essence is a socially constructed illusion created by the performance of gender.  Society enforces a rigid male/female binary, which is challenged by individuals who do not conform to these categories (e.g., heterosexual, gay, lesbian, bisexual). Practices like drag illustrate that gender is performative and fluid, highlighting its constructed nature. Butler critiques the dominant norms surrounding sex, gender, and sexuality, revealing their instability and advocating for a more inclusive understanding of identity. 巴特勒認為，性別並非源自生物性別，而是透過社會強制儀式產生的，受到強制異性戀的影響。 性別核心/自然性別的幻覺：固有性別本質的觀念是由性別表現所創造的社會建構的幻覺。 社會強制執行嚴格的男性/女性二元論，這種二元論受到不符合這些類別的個人（例如異性戀、男同性 戀、女同性戀、雙性戀）的挑戰。 像變裝這樣的做法表明，性別是具有表演性和流動性的，凸顯了其建構的本質。 巴特勒批評了圍繞性、社會性別和性取向的主流規範，揭示了它們的不穩定性，並倡導對身份進行更具 包容性的理解 Men’s Studies 1. Hegemonic masculinity 霸權男子氣概 定義：霸權男性氣質使某些男性能夠維持權力並使女性的從屬地位合法化，同時將其他男性氣質定義為 劣等。 文化理想：社會獎勵是為了符合職業成功、運動能力和獨立等理想而給予的 對男子氣概的威脅：如果男性不體現這些理想，他們就會感到自己的男子氣概受到威脅，從而導致基於 殘疾、體型、年齡、種族和性取向的「從屬變異」等類別。 男性氣質的等級制度：這創造了一種等級制度，使某些男性享有特權並侮辱其他男性，從而影響對男性 氣概的判斷。 改變屬性：霸權特徵可以進化，促使男性做出不同的反應——順從、順從或抵抗——從而導致「男子氣概 危機」。 The New Men (new definitions of masculinity) Iron John: Focuses on traditional masculinity and rationality. New Lad: Represents working-class men asserting masculinity through toughness and sexual adventurism 工人階級男性沒有固定工作，但透過表現強硬、聰明和性冒險來重申自己的男 子氣概 Feminine/Green Men: Sensitive to female issues and support gender equality A Very Straight Gay: Cult masculinity emphasizing physical appearance.邪教同性戀男子 氣概：體格健壯、以年輕人為導向、中產階級、厭惡營地異性戀者 Metrosexual: Urban men focused on aesthetics and grooming (Mark Simpson) - 任何性取向的城市男性（通常是異性戀）  - 美感意識強，熱衷於時尚和打扮，花費大量時間和金錢 - 關於他的外表和觀點 - 不要羞於向別人展現他的虛榮心 Emphasised Femininity 強調女性氣質 recognizes the unequal positions of masculinities and femininities within a patriarchal framework Role of Women: Women play key roles in constructing masculinities through relationships as mothers, schoolmates, partners, and workers within the gender division of labor. Emphasized femininity is often defined by a Victorian ideal of female passivity, beauty, and emotional responsiveness, typically reflecting white, middle-class norms. Female Masculinities While various masculinities linked to men are acknowledged, there is a lack of understanding regarding the masculinities expressed by women. 雖然與男性相關的各種男性氣質已被承認，但人們對女性所表現出的男性氣質缺乏了解。 Lecture 5 Family in Flux: Family, marriage, and intimate relationships The Great Transformation: From Tradition to Modern (a) Marriage Western Other → Monogamy 一夫一妻制 → polygamy (1 man & many wives) Traditional Mordern (Pragmatic marriage, arranged marriage) (monogamy) mundane 世俗的 free choice, based on romantic love facilitated by an authority (usually parents) sex after marriage is preferred through formal procedures fulfill emotional functions in the main selections based on rational goals fulfilled economic functions (e.g., property) and political functions (e.g., power, privilege) produced legitimate heirs to continue the family blood 產生合法繼承人以延續家族血統 sex before marriage was forbidden (b) family economic cooperation among family members sexual activity between spouses childbearing and education reproduction care of the sick and the aged recreation Traditional (extended family) Modern (nuclear family) a family consists of parents and children as a family composed of one or two parents well as other kin and their immediate offspring, with the 家庭由父母、子女等親屬組成 following assumptions:  breadwinner husband and homemaker wife: sexual gratification and gendered division of labour 2-3 biological children: primary socialization (c)Romantic Love Pre-conditions for Development: Fostered gender equality. Allowed for more open sexual expression. Improved economic positions for women. Increased opportunities for youth interaction without parental surveillance. More leisure time for cultivating romantic relationships. Cultural Significance: Romantic love evolved into: A way of life. A powerful cultural image. A potential danger requiring control. Romantic Love Myths love at first sight one ‘true’ love love conquers all happy ever after Early Perspectives on Family and Marriage (a) Structural functional analysis two basic function - primary socialisation of children: learn how to become a member of society - Stabilisation穩定 of the adult personalities: regulation of sexual activity Prostitution賣淫: does not threaten the institution of family Incest taboo (to avoid role confusion) 亂倫禁忌（避免角色錯亂) (b) Social conflict (Marxist) analysis Property and inheritance財產和繼承: - Families concentrate wealth and reproduce the class structure in each new generation Patriarchy: - Families transform women into the sexual and economic property of men Family relations are relations of three properties Erotic property色情財產 Property rights over human bodies To legalise sexual activity Adultery and virginity of women Generational property世代財產 Property rights regarding children To legalise the transfer of property via inheritance The incest taboo Household property Property rights over goods held by the family Capital that are exchanged between husband and wife Women as the reproduction of the labour force -> contribute to the hidden economy of household To legalise the transfer of property/capital between partners (c)Social conflict analysis- Feminist Accounts Marriage as a trade, women become possessions財產 Marriage as a social and economic necessity, especially for women Marriage legitimizes the exploitation of women by men - The housewife syndrome - The myth of motherhood (child need mum,mum need child) (d) Symbolic interactionist analysis: The changing meanings of family How family is experienced by different family members How different family members (e.g., husband/wife, parents/children, siblings) build relationships and bonding Three Major Contemporary Views on Intimate Relationships (a) Pure relationship as self-reflective project  Self-identity as a reflexive project High modernity: - Industrialization; rationalization; expert system; individualism; risk and new trust mechanism Pure relationship: relationship of emotional Plastic sexuality: and sexual equality Voluntary, egalitarian, communicative and Decentred sexuality, freed from the needs of democratic relationships between reproduction individuals自願、平等、溝通和民主的關係 個人 ‘Confluent love’, in which mutual trust between partners should be established through disclosing intimacy透露親密關係 Commitment without guarantee (work ‘until further notice’) Not necessarily heterosexual or non-exclusive (i.e., not necessarily monogamous一夫一妻制) (b) The feminist critique: The female’s voice, whore feminist, ethical slut The feminist critique of monogamy (Jackson and Scott 2004) Sexual exclusivity性排他性 Institutionalization of coupledom 夫妻關係制度化 Resumed ownership of another individual 恢復對另一個人的所有權 Love as false consciousness to exploit women 愛情是剝削女性的虛假意識 The whore feminist (Chapkis 1997) Female equality based on free choice -> right to engage in prostitution. Women and sex ≠ oppression and abuse Women and sex = power ‘Whore is dangerously free’ (Roberts, 1992): - resists and defies male power by refusing to allow her sexuality being owned by one man  - enjoys financial and sexual autonomy享有經濟和性自主權 that is almost always denied to the majority of women in patriarchal societies Challenge to the notion of proper womanhood Subvert conventional sexuality 顛覆傳統性觀念 Ethical slut有道德的蕩婦 (Easton & Liszt, 1997) Sex-positive: ‘sex is nice and pleasure is good for you’ Allow for infinite sexual possibilities (open relationships, swing parties, threesome) Consent (no lies, coercion, manipulation, etc) Honest to ourselves and others Recognize the conflicts that our sexual choices may cause and be ready to deal with them Own our feelings: not controlling or blaming others (c) Queer critique on (hetero-)normative intimate relationships “condemned to freedom被判處自由”” in reconstructing relationships on their own terms’ Families of choice: Same-sex marriage Friends-as-family Queer (gay men) critique (Kong 2011) A separation between sexual and emotional fidelity Development of different agreed-upon rules Models: 1 + 1= 2 (not assumed, but something to work on) 2 + 1 (primary - secondary relationship) 2 + many (‘sex-with-love’–‘sex-for-fun’) Doing family The family is a set of everyday practices rather than an institution 家庭是一系列日常實踐 而不是一個機構 Families are what families do Family life encompasses - Political economy (e.g., allocation of time and resources) - Moral economy (moral choices concerning health and sickness, life and death) - Emotional economy (emotional labor, work and bodily concerns) Sexual citizenship Conduct-based rights (‘rights to various forms of sexual practices in personal relationships’) - The right to participate in sexual activity - The right to pleasure - The right to sexual (and reproductive) self-determination Identity-based rights (‘rights through self-definition and the development of individual identities’) - The right to self-definition - The right to self-expression - The right to self-realization Relationship-based rights (‘rights within social institutions: public validation of various forms of sexual relations’) - The right of consent to sexual practice in personal relationships - The right to freely choose our sexual partners - The right to publicly recognized sexual relationships Latest developments in late-modernity (a) Marriage Form: Serial monogamy as the norm 連續一夫一妻製成為常態 Rise of marriage-like institutions: Cohabitation, domestic partnership, civic union, same-sex marriage, etc. 類似婚姻制度的興起：同居、同居伴侶、民事結合、同性婚姻等 Characteristics: Marry – divorce – remarry Singlehood Sex and love before marriage Fulfill emotional functions in the main (b) Family Nuclear family as the norm Multiple-partners New forms emerging: Friends as families Childless families Singledhood Cohabitation “Living apart together” same sex families many more… Surrogate families (c) Love and romance Consuming the romantic utopia individualism → loneliness Personal happiness = possessing the partner, establishing relationship and excluding others (i.e. the ideal form of nuclear family). Love= happiness and becomes a new religion: - Love as consumption - Marriage as an investment - Relationship as a transaction in which the partners are “co-workers” Elective affinity between romantic love and capitalism (sociological imagination) - The theme of love in mass media - The romanticization of commodities Post-modern intimacy and new romance The ‘freedom of choice’ as the consumer motive of romance Sex becomes the key component of intimacy The inclusion of ‘transience’, ‘novelty’,‘excitement’ and ‘pleasure’ as new definition of romance 將「短暫」、「新穎」、「興奮」和「愉悅」納入浪漫的新定義 The rejection of an overarching and comforting life-long romantic narrative 拒絕包羅萬 象、令人安慰的終生浪漫敘事 Lecture 6 Suffering Inequalities: Class, Stratification and Social Divisions Social Stratification a system by which a society ranks categories of people in a hierarchy 社會分層是社會對 不同類別的人進行等級劃分的系統 a trait特徵 of society persists over generations社會分層持續幾代人 Social mobility – a change in one’s position in the social hierarchy - upward or downward (vertical mobility), but most often, people move horizontally (horizontal mobility) common and can be changed involves inequality & beliefs Caste System Social stratification based on ascription, or birth. Typical of agrarian societies 典型的農業社會 (mostly in the past but also nowadays, e.g., India, and South Africa – race as caste - apartheid) Permits little social mobility Determines the direction of a person’s life (e.g., marriage, occupation) Rests on powerful cultural beliefs Class System Social stratification based on both birth and individual achievement. Typical of industrial societies More open than caste system Based on meritocracy 菁英統治(social stratification based on personal merit) Allows social mobility based on individual achievement The Functions of Social Stratification: The Davis-Moore Thesis Social stratification has beneficial consequences for the operation of a society. Hundreds of occupational positions of varying importance. Functional importance ↑- > rewards attached ↑ Promotes productivity and efficiency -> encourages people to do jobs and to work better, longer and harder. Unequal rewards benefit some individuals -> a system of unequal rewards benefits society as a whole. Criticism How do we assess how important any occupation really is? How well does the income paid to people reflect their contribution to society? Tends to overestimate the significance of some high-paying work Social stratification prevent the development of individual talent (e.g., poor children) Ignores how social inequality promotes conflict and even outright revolution. Stratification and Social Conflict: Karl Marx Relations to the means of production: - Ownership of productive property - Ownership of labour power Capitalist society reproduces the class structure in each new generation (through family, education and occupation) Criticism: Motivating people to perform various social roles requires some system of unequal rewards. The revolutionary developments failed to happen. Why No Marxist Revolution? A debate: The fragmentation碎片化 of the capitalist class A higher standard of living More worker organizations More extensive legal protections A counterpoint: Wealth remains highly concentrated. Today’s white collar jobs are no better than factory work a century ago -> M-shaped society – polarised society with the extreme poor and the extreme rich. Many benefits enjoyed by today’s workers came about through the class conflict. While workers have gained legal protections, they still face disadvantages that the law cannot overcome. Max Weber: Multidimensional View of Social Stratification (a) 3 main sources of social inequality Class power: power to control and the right to use material resources Social power: social status and esteem, which are highly related to family, kinship, religion, and ethnicity Political power: right to control the agency of the state, or the ability to influence those who control the state Class position: Ownership of material resources Possession of scarce skills and knowledge擁有稀缺的技能和知識. Socioeconomic status (SES)– income, wealth, occupation, education, status, etc. Class Structure b. Comparison between Marx and Weber on social class: Stratification and Interaction a. Thorstein Veblen’s Conspicuous Consumption Consumer goods: markers of social prestige and status. ‘A new leisure class’ (nouveaux riches暴發戶): - mimicked the lifestyle of the upper class in Europe - System of rank and grades through the markers of consumption - possessed ‘good taste’ - ability to pay for consumption b. Pierre Bourdieu’s Distinction: A Social Critique of the Judgement of Taste Status and class groups differentiate themselves one from another by patterns of consumption Capital (Bourdieu 1986): - Economic capital - Social capital - Cultural capital: - > Embodied state (e.g., language) - > Objectified state (e.g., art work) - > Institutionalized state (e.g., academic credentials) - Symbolic capital  Gender and Social Stratification (The gendered perspective)  Historical Overview Producing goods or services for consumption within the household Producing goods or services at home for sale or exchange elsewhere (cottage industry) Care-giving and volunteer work Working for wages  Full-time Housework Domestic labour debate – Maintenance of labour – Reproduction of fresh labour Physical work: – Housework Emotion work: – Care-giving (to children, husband and the elderly) ‘Sex’ work: – Sexual service to husband  The Second/Third Shift: Role accumulation view: – Career + Family = Successful woman! Role overload view: – First shift: Wage labour – Second shift: Housework and child care – Third shift: Care of the elderly (husband’s parents/own parents)  The Time Bind: When work becomes home and home becomes work Home and work reconsidered – The importance of work Time bind at home: – Quality time – Taylorizing the home – Buy children out of it  Women in the Labour Force Occupational segregation – Men’s jobs: masculinity, rationality and authority, mainly in managerial and professional occupations – Women’s jobs: femininity, caring and nurturing  White collar labour The male managerial staff – vice-presidents, sales and product managers Female clerical staff – secretaries and data entry clerks Mixed gender technical staff – computer programmers and system analysts  Blue collar labour Male-dominated: – plumbers, electricians, machinist, carpenters, craftspeople Female dominated: – dressmaker, electronic equipment assemblers Low level semiskilled jobs  A few observations Women make up half of the population but are distributed in those with less pay, power and prestige Still have to bear family responsibilities: Parenting, child rearing Suffer from sexual discrimination  Career Promotion Married Single Men Asset Liability (esp with children: stable and committed) Women Liability Liability  Men in feminine profession Men earn more money than women in every occupation – even in predominately female jobs, e.g., nurse, librarian, kindergarten teacher, secretary Glass escalator effect: – Men sometimes encounter prejudice and even discrimination but these consequences actually can benefit them – faster upward mobility  Women in the profession The glass ceiling: – Barrier to upward mobility – Women’s failure to rise to senior level positions because of invisible and artificial barriers constructed by male management  Feminist Activism Equal pay policy Job integration policy Comparable worth Family-friendly policy – purchasing services allowing for career mobility – telecommunicating from home – finding employment offering flexible work time – working part-time – sharing a job with another worker – working some hours at home – taking parental leave or using “flex time”  Hong Kong Labour Department: Family friendly employment practices Family leave benefits, such as marriage leave, parental leave, compassionate leave, special casual leave and special long leave, etc. Flexible work arrangements, such as five-day workweek, flexible working hours and home-based work, etc. Employee support schemes, such as medical protection to employees and their family members, child care services, counselling services on stress or emotional management, setting up of nursery room and organising family recreational activities.  THE UNIVERSITY Of HONG KONG Introduction to Sociology (SOCI 1001) First Semester 2024-2025 Lecturer: Prof. Travis SK KONG Office: Rm 917, Department of Sociology, The Jockey Club Tower, The University of Hong Kong Tel no.: 3917 2055 Email: [email protected] Tutors: Dr. Charlotte YEUNG [email protected] (tutor-in-chief) Ms. Cheryle WONG [email protected] Mr. Kelvin LAM [email protected] Ms. Linghan GE [email protected] Lecture: 4: 30 p.m. – 6: 20 p.m., Thursday Venue: MW Complex, T2 Moodle: SOCI1001_B  Deviance – Activities which do not conform to norms and expectations of members of a society – Recognised violation of cultural norms – Non-conformity Negative, e.g., stealing, assault, driving while intoxicated Positive, e.g., too talkative, too religious Identities, e.g., Muslim, homosexuals, prostitutes, new migrants, mental patients…  Crime: – Behaviour which break the norms defined by formal rules – Violation of a society’s formally enacted criminal law Social control: – Attempts by society to regulate people’s thoughts and behaviour – Criminal justice system: A formal response by police, courts, and prison officials to alleged violations of the law. Social or Legal system cultural norms Formal rules: Informal rules Criminal justice system Conform Violation Conform Violation Early Theories: Physiological theories: – Deviance is believed as a result of biological instincts Cesare Lombroso (1876): – Born with criminal tendencies: – Large skulls, high cheek bones, large ears, extra nipples, toes and fingers, and an insensitivity to pain  William A. Sheldon (1949) and Sheldon Glueck & Eleanor Glueck (1956): 3 types of human physiques: Mesomorphs Ectomorphs Endomorphs  William A. Sheldon (1949) and Sheldon Glueck & Eleanor Glueck (1956): Mesomorphs: Less sensitive towards others Distant relationship with their parents Nowadays, criminologists: Particular chromosomes (XYY) Chemical imbalance  Psychological theories Deviance is viewed as the result of ‘unsuccessful’ socialisation Hans Eysenck (1964): – Personality traits, e.g., extrovert John Bowlby (1946): – Deprived of motherly love, particularly during its early years  Criticisms: These theories claim to have discovered scientifically the causes of deviance: – in the body (organic defeat) – in the mind (emotional disturbance) Fail to consider the social factors in determining deviance. – Abnormal genetic make-up - > bizarre appearance -> treated differently - > exclusion of normal life - > deviance – Unfavourable early socialisation -> unfavourable social conditions - > coping strategies Implication of treatment for deviance  The Social Foundations of Deviance Deviance varies according to cultural norms (Functional perspective) People become deviant as others define them that way (Labelling perspective) Both norms and the ways people define rule-breaking involve social power (Conflict perspective) Gender and deviance (Feminist perspective)  A Functionalist Perspective Durkheim: – Deviance is not a few ‘bad apples’ but a necessary condition of ‘good’ social living Deviance affirms cultural values and norms Responding to deviance clarifies moral boundaries Responding to deviance brings people together Deviance encourages social change  Deviance and Social Structure Robert K. Merton: Strain Theory Common value consensus (e.g. success in terms of wealth and material possession) Adaptation Cultural goals Institutional means types Conformity Accepted (+) Accepted (+) Innovation Accepted (+) Rejected (-) Ritualism Rejected (-) Accepted (+) Retreatism Rejected (-) Rejected (-) Rebellion Rejected by Rejected by replacement (-/+) replacement (-/+)  Criticism: Assume common consensus Ignores the possibility of cultural diversity Taylor’s metaphor: A gigantic fruit machine – The machine is rigged and only some players are consistently rewarded. Using magnets to increase their chances of winning (innovation) play on mindlessly (ritualism) give up the game (retreatism) propose a new game altogether (rebellion) – Who put the game there in the first place and who takes the profits? Subcultural Theories (e.g., gang theories) Albert K. Cohen Delinquent gangs (working class background) Collective rather than an individual response ‘Non-utilitarian’ crime: vandalism, joy-rider Internalization -> Status -> Emotional -> Reaction -> Formation of middle- frustration discomforts formation of class e.g. failure e.g. guilt and delinquent at school shame subculture Richard A. Cloward and Lloyd E. Ohlin: Delinquency and opportunity Legitimate Illegitimate Subcultural opportunity opportunity types structures structures Failed to accessible --------------------------> Criminal access and subculture successful e.g. Utilitarian crimes Failed to failed to -> release of -> Conflict access access anger and subculture frustration e.g. gang violence -> double failure -> Retreatist and subculture withdrawn e.g. illegal drug taken Malter B. Miller Lower class -> deviant subculture Trouble Toughness Smartness A need for excitement A belief in fate A desire for freedom  Symbolic interactionism No general agreement about what constitutes deviance Deviants are not different from ‘normal’ people Examine how and why particular individuals and groups are defined as deviants Examine the effects of such a definition upon their further actions Howard S. Becker: ‘Deviance is not a quality of the act the person commits, but rather a consequence of the application by others of the rules and sanctions to an “offender”. The deviant is one to whom that label has been successfully applied; deviant behaviour is behaviour that people so label.’ (Becker 1963: 9) focus on situational / cultural norms Obedient Rule-breaking behaviour behaviour Perceived as falsely pure deviant deviant accused Not conforming secret perceived as deviant deviant even though they may not act as deviance but because of labelling, they may be deviance Edwin M. Lemert e.g. immigration : ppl think nei hai immgrant and look down at u although u do nth. as the result nei mm shg hard Primary deviance: working deviant acts before they are publicly labelled as long as they are rationalized or otherwise dealt with as functions of a socially acceptable role. Secondary deviance: response of the individual or the group to the labelling repetitive and high visibility severe social reaction as part of the ‘me’ of the individual ‘When a person begins to employ his behaviour or a role based upon it as a means of defense, attack, or adjustment to the overt and covert problems created by the consequent societal reaction to him, his deviance is secondary’. Labelling effect: Stigma (spoiled identity) – deviant identity – deviant career Labelling process: Stigmatisation Stereotyping Essentalising Self-fulfilling prophecy Deviant Career Retrospective labelling Projective labelling Subculture Degradation ceremony Labelled individuals: Stigma – master status  Mental illness and the medicalisation of deviance: Szasz: ‘Myth of mental illness’ Rosenhan: ‘On Being Sane in Insane Places’ Moral or legal deviance -> medical condition, rendering people ‘sick’ rather than ‘bad’: – alcoholism, obesity, drug addiction, child abuse, sexual promiscuity, homosexuality Criticisms: (a) The definition of deviance (b) The origin of deviance (c) Labelling as deterministic (d) Labelling, laws and law enforcement  Marxist Perspective Elements of capitalism Examples of deviants Private property Theft The social conditions under Refuse/unable to perform wage which production takes place labour: beggars, the poor, the elderly, mental illness, physical disabilities Patterns of distribution and ‘Improper’ way to escape consumption in capitalist e.g. drug mis-users (Merton’s society retreatists) The process of socialisation Refuse to be schooled/ deny for productive and non- the validity of family life e.g. productive roles marginal youth, homosexuals The ideology which supports Proponents of alternative the functioning of capitalist forms of social organisations society. ‘… both criminal justice and social welfare system blame individuals, not the system, for social problems. Welfare recipients are considered unworthy freeloaders, poor people who express rage at their plight are labelled rioters, anyone who challenges the government is branded a radical or a communist, and those who try to gain illegally what they will never get legally are rounded up as common criminals.’ (Macionis, 2006: 232)  Deviance and gender Feminists criticize the sociology of deviance focuses overwhelmingly on men, ignores the experiences of women, and is gender-biased in the analyses: Merton’s strain theory: defines cultural goals in terms of financial success, which has more to do with the lives of men Labelling theory: gender influences how we define and label deviance Conflict theory: does not address the issue of gender. If economic disadvantage is a primary cause of crime, who do women (whose economic position is much worse than men’s) commit fewer crimes than men? Examples: women with drugs, women engage in sex work  Definition of crime: – The act itself – Criminal intent Types of crime: – Crime against the person, violent crime – Crime against property, property crime – Victimless crime  Crime and statistics Reported versus unreported crimes – It must come to someone’s attention that a crime has taken place – It must be reported to the relevant agency – That agency must be willing to accept that the law has been broken Victimization studies Official data and statistics White collar crime, corporate crime, computer crime, and governmental crime are difficult to detect.  THE UNIVERSITY Of HONG KONG Introduction to Sociology (SOCI 1001) First Semester 2024-2025 Lecturer: Prof. Travis SK KONG Office: Rm 917, Department of Sociology, The Jockey Club Tower, The University of Hong Kong Tel no.: 3917 2055 Email: [email protected] Tutors: Dr. Charlotte YEUNG [email protected] (tutor-in-chief) Ms. Cheryle WONG [email protected] Mr. Kelvin LAM [email protected] Ms. Linghan GE [email protected] Lecture: 4: 30 p.m. – 6: 20 p.m., Thursday Venue: MW Complex, T2 Moodle: SOCI1001_B  Media is Power? Mass Media, Media Effects and Information Society Dominant institutions in modern society: The government The economy The mass media (the fourth power: legislature, executive, judiciary) Mass Media: Printed media: book, magazine, newspaper Electronic media: television, radio, film Digital media: Internet, online computer games, social media  Mass media Functions: – Source of Information – Agents of socialization – Identification and social interaction – Entertainment – Propaganda Effects: – Political – Social – Economic – Cultural ‘The medium is the message’ (McLuhan) As a way of life (William) As a cultural production (Du Gay): – representation, identity, production, consumption and regulation  The act of communication Who Control analysis Says what Content analysis In which channels Media analysis To whom Audience analysis With which effects Effect analysis 1. Mass Society Theory – Media as Mass Culture Mass society theory as a pessimistic reaction to the whole processes of modernity: industrialisation and urbanisation the development of democracy the beginning of popular education the emergence of contemporary forms of ‘mass communication’ Mass society = ‘Loss of community’ The rise of the mass media and popular culture: Contributed to the decline of the ‘organic community’ Threatened high culture (moral and aesthetic excellence) and folk culture (self-reliant and self-created cultural life) Mass culture: a commercially produced culture: passive consumption standardization of culture Romantic fiction: ‘a habit of fantasying [which] will lead to maladjustment of life’ Hollywood films: ‘largely masturbatory’ Popular press: ‘the most powerful and pervasive de-educator of the public mind’ Advertising: ‘unremitting, pervasive, masturbatory manipulation’  Consequences: Reducing intelligence to the level of the lowest common denominator Creation of rootless, lonely and directionless ‘mass man’ Mass and popular culture = – Inauthentic – Manipulative – Unsatisfying Mass society theory Also known as ‘hypodermic needle’ theory Stresses on imitation and arousal process Usually links to moral panic, e.g., violence and sex Mass media function as an amplifier of deviancy  Major tasks To define and defend the best of culture represented by the cannon of good works. To criticise the worst of mass culture represented by advertising, films and popular fictions, etc. Criticisms: On social order and structure (mass media as scapegoat) On high culture and mass culture (elitist moralist tendency-> the will of power) On audience as mass (audience as active) On media effects (ill effects) 2. Marxist and Neo-Marxist Tradition – Media as Culture Industry Private corporations own the media and thus popular culture Invests capitalist interests into the media Ideological control of media content Threatens media freedom and creativity Media and ideological Control Orthodox Marxism SUPERSTRUCTURE (Ideology) art culture Politics Relations of production Means of production BASE (Economy) The formation of culture  Neo-Marxism and Class and Social Change: Culture Industry Dissatisfaction and alienation from work The Frankfurt School – Key figures: The development of class Theodor Adorno consciousness Herbert Marcuse Max Hokheimer The growth of class solidarity – Why no real class revolution? The polarisation of classes Class struggle The march to socialism/communism  The notion of Culture Industry Standardisation ‘as soon as the film begins, it is quite clear how it will end, and who will be rewarded, punished, or forgotten. In light music, once the trained ear has heard the first notes of the hit song, it can guess what is coming and feel flattered when it does come. The average length of the short story has to be rigidly adhered to. Even gags, effects, and jokes are calculated like the setting in which they are placed. They are the responsibility of special experts…the result is a constant reproduction of the same thing.’ (Adorno and Horkhemier, 1979: 125).  The notion of Culture Industry Pseudo individuality The closure of the universe of discourse One Dimensional Man (Marcuse 1964)  Consequences Culture reduced as ‘mass culture’ = empty and meaningless product to be bought and sold and ultimate thrown away. Mass culture invaded and subverted the world of traditional high or bourgeois culture. The products of culture industry as an escape from reality through illusion and fantasy. Mass media advance the habit of consumerism - > neglect existence of social inequality and problems. Culture Mass culture Real False European American Multi-dimensional One-dimensional Active consumption Passive consumption Individual creation Mass production Imagination Distraction Negation Social cement  Media is political It is expressive of social relations of class power It naturalizes the social order as an inevitable ‘fact’ It obscures the underlying relations of exploitation  Hesmondhalgh 2013 Cultural industries have been seen as a good business investment: An oligopoly of vast multinational corporations now dominate cultural production and circulation in North America and Europe, and to a lesser extent in Asia A second tier of big corporations dominates the cultural landscape of many individual nations The biggest cultural industries: Companies dominate in one cultural industry in one country Companies influencing one cultural industry across several countries Companies having interests across more than one cultural industry in one country Companies with interests in more than one cultural industry internationally  Globalization of mass media – Transnational capitalist corporations Cross-promotion – merchandising – tie-in Media owner Theme parks Movie studio (movie) Music companies + + + Newspapers TV network radio stations + magazines  Questions Who is now in control of the media? Do all the mass media products show homogeneity? Are people really so passive? 3. Liberal-Pluralist School – Media as Cultural Pluralism Democracy -> free to compete for political power Political freedom requires free media Political and media freedom both require economic freedom – economic liberalism Media serves a democratic function, e.g., independent media, Facebook, weibo, twitter Critique to mass society theory and open up the discussion to the nature of the ‘audience’. Key Opinion Leaders (KOL): Intermediate role to transmit media messages to social groups Two step flow model: Media ------- Opinion leaders ------ Individuals (‘conductors’) 4. Media as audience (Ang 1995) (A) The audience as mass and market (e.g., ratings) (B) Uses and gratification: Audience highly active, motivated and selective Why do people make use of media offerings: Information Personal identity Social Interaction Entertainment Criticism: Individualistic Lacks of attention to the content of media output Political problem – assume audience is fully satisfied with the media (C) Reception analysis: What do people see in the media? Examines how audiences construct meanings out of media offerings Texts are ‘polysemic’ Audiences are seen as producers of meaning, not just consumers of media  Hall: “encoding/decoding” Programme as ‘meaningful’ discourse Encoding Decoding meaning meaning structures 1 structures 2 Frameworks of Frameworks of knowledge knowledge Relations of Relations of production production Technical Technical infrastructure infrastrcuture  Reading positions The dominant-hegemonic position (preferred reading) The negotiated position The oppositional position (reading against the grain)  The media in everyday life: How are the media integrated into our everyday life? ‘Media ensemble’ – Not fully used – Integral to our routines The politics of the living room  5. Functionalism: Media as function Social functions of media (Denise McQuail, 2000): information correlation continuity entertainment mobilization  Criticism: Describing the media’s current roles rather than explaining why there exist Nothing to say about the audience reception of media products Functions are wholly positive, neglecting that media could be destructive of society’s cultural vitality 6. Symbolic interactionism : media as interaction Links to moral panic (Stan Cohen) John Thompson (1995): Face-to-face interaction Mediated interaction (e.g. phone) Mediated quasi-interaction (e.g. TV)  7. Gender perspectives: Media as gendered Examine how gender (especially women) is represented in media The male gaze: ‘Men look at women. Women watch themselves being looked at. This determines not only most relations between men and women but also the relation of women to themselves.’ (Berger, 1972: 47) Explore the media construction of women as spectacle (‘to-be-looked-at-ness’), the gender of the gaze (the ‘male gaze’) and voyeuristic pleasure (Mulvey, 1975) Further questions: The question of quality – high/low culture The issue of political economy – ownership of media The question of media effects and censorship The nature of audience  THE UNIVERSITY Of HONG KONG Introduction to Sociology (SOCI 1001) First Semester 2024-2025 Lecturer: Prof. Travis SK KONG Office: Rm 917, Department of Sociology, The Jockey Club Tower, The University of Hong Kong Tel no.: 3917 2055 Email: [email protected] Tutors: Dr. Charlotte YEUNG [email protected] (tutor-in-chief) Ms. Cheryle WONG [email protected] Mr. Kelvin LAM [email protected] Ms. Linghan GE [email protected] Lecture: 4: 30 p.m. – 6: 20 p.m., Thursday Venue: MW Complex, T2 Moodle: SOCI1001_B  Basic of sociological investigation Apply sociological perspective(s) Be curious Ask questions  Forms of truth: Belief or faith Recognised experts Civil wisdom Humanities – interpretive method of finding ‘truth’ Science – explaining the causality of events or uncovering ‘truth’ by a logical system that bases on direct and systematic observation with empirical evidence  Four ways to do sociology Scientific sociology: study of society based on systematic observation of social behaviour, e.g., Durkheim’s suicide Interpretive sociology: study of society that focuses on the meanings of people attach to their social world, e.g., Weber’s verstehen Critical sociology: study of society that focuses on the need for social change, e.g., Marx’s communist manifesto. Gender/feminist/queer sociology: study of society that challenges issues related to gender and sexuality, e.g., sexism, patriarchy and heteronormativity, e.g., West and Zimmerman’s Doing Gender. Social Research is the collection of data with a view to enhancing knowledge about particular social phenomena of our society.  1. Define the Problem Formulate a problem: – Research question How to formulate: – Brain storming – Literature review – Funding application – Something personal  2. Literature Review Familiarise yourself with existing research on the topic Consider whether existing literature is essential, important, relevant, supporting or irrelevant. Also a way to sharpen your problem  3. Formulating a Hypothesis (esp quantitative research) What do you intend to test? Concept, e.g., the family, social class, deviance, gender Variable, e.g., – Sex: male/female (nominal) – Education level: (ordinal) No education/Primary/Secondary education/Bachelor’s Degree/Master’s degree or above – IQ score: 40-175 (interval) – Age: 0 – 120 (ratio)  Conceptualisation What is youth? – 15-25? – 12-40? – 18-65? Drug taking? – Coffee/Panadol/alcohol – Marijuana, hush – K/ Ecstasy (MDMA)/ Ice (methamphetamine) – Heroin/Cocaine Religious beliefs: – Christianity, Catholicism, Buddhism, Muslim, etc. Social class: income, occupation, education  Measurement (the ‘instrument’) Reliability Validity Reliable but not valid Neither valid nor reliable Valid and reliable Causation and correlation: Independent variable -> dependent variable Educational attainment Occupational income Cold weather Suicide Depression Density of living condition Delinquency rate Income level  4. Population and sampling: Population: the group you are going to study Sample: the group you select from the population Sampling: the way to select your sample, e.g., random, stratified, snowball Sample size and response rate 5. Select a Research Design Survey research (questionnaire, interview, e.g., polling) Scaling (e.g., especially in psychology) Ethnography (e.g., participant observation, biographical study, field studies) Unobtrusive measure (e.g., textual analysis, documentary analysis) 6. Carry Out the Research Collect your data, record information Pilot test  7. Ethical issues: Consent Risk of harm Confidentiality Anonymity Power element Erotic element 8. Interpret Your Results Data preparation For quantitative research: – Statistical analysis Descriptive statistics Inferential statistics For qualitative research: – Understanding, interpretation and generalisation 9. Report the Research Findings What is their significance and contribution? How do they relate to previous findings? What are the implications and recommendations?  Research Methods 2 common methods in sociology: Survey Ethnography  Common form 1: Survey Research Good for collecting data to describe a population too large to observe Measuring attitudes and orientations in a large population, e.g. polling, opinion survey Data gathered are usually appropriate for quantitative (statistical) analysis – e.g. unemployment, mean income, political attitude, popularity Two main forms - Questionnaire and interview: – Self-administrated questionnaires – Telephone and fact-to-face (structured) interview Response rate  Common form 2: Ethnography Behaviours best be understood within their natural setting Stigmatised social groups Uncover the meanings behind Participant observation/in-depth interview  Experiment Psychology in social sciences Attempt to test a hypothesis under highly controlled conditions established by an investigator. G1 O X O G2 O O Hawthorne effect  Biographical Approach The life history Oral history The diary; the letter; the photograph Documentary film Case study  Unobtrusive Research Using available data such as statistics and census from the government; historical events; media contents Policy analysis Historical analysis Content analysis Media analysis (e.g., film studies) Research Strengths Limitations Method Survey research Collection of Superficial data on large numbers of Questionnaire individuals. highly standardised Precise comparisons Differences between between respondents respondents’ viewpoints may be glossed over Research Strengths Limitations Method Ethnography Richer and Relatively Biographical more in-depth small groups approach information Not easy to Deeper and generalise detailed understanding Research Strengths Limitations Method Experiment Specific Social life variables can cannot be be controlled brought into the laboratory Easier for replication Responses may be affected by the experimental situation. Research Strengths Limitations Method Unobtrusive Saves time No control research and money over possible biases in data Makes policy/ Data may not historical/ partially fit media current researches research possible needs