Introduction to Sociology PDF

Introduction to Sociology  UNDERSTANDING SOCIOLOGY Module 1: What is Sociology? Module 2: The Development of Sociology Module 3: Major Theoretical Perspectives A Look Ahead █ How did sociology develop? █ How does it differ from other social sciences? █ Who are...

Introduction to Sociology  UNDERSTANDING SOCIOLOGY Module 1: What is Sociology? Module 2: The Development of Sociology Module 3: Major Theoretical Perspectives A Look Ahead █ How did sociology develop? █ How does it differ from other social sciences? █ Who are the pioneers and what are their theoretical perspectives? █ How does sociology help us develop a sociological imagination?  Questions - Are you influenced by what you see on television? - Do you use the Internet? - Did you vote in the last election? - Are you familiar with binge drinking on campus? =) Sociology looks at large social issues.  Module 1 What is Sociology? █ Sociology: is the “scientific” study of social structures and human relationships and behaviors. █ Focus on: – How relationships influence people’s attitudes and behavior – How societies develop and change Sociology is not a practice like [social work] but an attempt to understand social relations and investigate how general social, political, economic, cultural, and religious patterns affect the lives of particular individuals. According to Peter Berger, sociology enables us to see the general in the particular. Sociology examines how the categories to which we belong (the general) influence our relations with other people and determine our life- chances and experiences (the particular). For example : In our individualistic society, social actors often assume that marriage is a personal decision that reflects their own individual choices and likes and dislikes regarding their partners. However, the choice of marriage partners in society is affected and influenced by a range of intersecting factors, such as gender, sexuality, race, ability, social class, religious affiliation, political ideology, ethnicity, period of immigration Sociology vs Psychology - psychology : the personality of individuals : ◦example : relation with his parents ◦=) so psychology analyses ONE person. - sociology, (socio logos) ◦understand INDIVIDUALS, in a group for example, and their relation with family, state, in school for example. ◦Sociology is the science which analyses social group. ◦Sociology tries to analyze the society and individuals.  Module 1 The Sociological Imagination █ C. Wright Mills describes sociological imagination as: An awareness of the Ability to view relationship between one’s society as an individual and the an outsider would wider society One of the best ways to learn sociological theories is to practice them and to apply what we learn in our everyday activities and social relations. It is important to become both producers of theory and its practitioners. We can practice sociology through the concept of sociological imagination. Mills distinguishes between micro-level personal troubles and macro- level public issues of social structures in his analyses of social, political, and economic issues. He argues that in order to understand the lives of social actors, we need to understand the history of a society (macro); and, in order to understand the history of a society, we also need to understand the lives of individuals that compose it (micro) (Mills, 1959, p. 3). Moreover, he maintaines people need to define the troubles they face in light of public issues and historical changes and structural contradictions (Mills, 1959, p. 3). Sociological Imagination Mills defined sociological imagination as how individuals understand their own and others’ pasts in relation to history and social structure (1959). It is the capacity to see an individual’s private troubles in the context of the broader social processes that structure them. The Sociological Imagination A key element in the sociological imagination is the ability to view one’s own society as an outsider would, rather than only from the perspective of personal experiences and cultural biases. =) importance of objectivity. Mills reasoned that private troubles like being overweight, being unemployed, having marital difficulties, or feeling purposeless or depressed can be purely personal in nature.  It is possible for them to be addressed and understood in terms of personal, psychological, or moral attributes, either one’s own or those of the people in one’s immediate milieu. In an individualistic society, this is in fact the most likely way that people will regard the issues they confront: “I have an addictive personality;” “I can’t get a break in the job market;” “My husband is unsupportive;” etc. However, if private troubles are widely shared with others, they indicate that there is a common social problem that has its source in the way social life is structured. At this level, the issues are not adequately understood as simply private troubles. They are best addressed as public issues that require a collective response to resolve The Sociological Imagination Obesity: It has been increasingly recognized as a growing problem for both children and adults in North America. With Sociological Imagination:  Obesity is not simply a private trouble concerning the medical issues, dietary practices, or exercise habits of specific individuals.  It is a widely shared social issue that puts people at risk for chronic diseases like hypertension, diabetes, and cardiovascular disease. It also creates significant social costs for the medical system. Pollan argues that obesity is in part a product of the increasingly sedentary and stressful lifestyle of modern, capitalist society, but more importantly it is a product of the industrialization of the food chain. The sociological imagination in this example involves linking personal issues like being overweight to larger societal factors.  It highlights how changes in the food industry have influenced our eating habits and the environment, making it a broader social concern Sociology and the Social Sciences Is sociology a science? Science: Refers to the body of knowledge obtained by methods based on systematic observation. Sociology: involves the organized, systematic study of phenomena. =) All scientists attempt to collect precise information through methods of study. They rely on careful recording of observations and accumulation of data. Module 1 Sociology and the Social Sciences █ Science: Body of knowledge obtained by methods based on systematic observation – Natural science: – Social science: Study of physical Study of social features of nature features of humans and the ways they and the ways they interact and change interact and change Social Sciences Anthropology: study past cultures and preindustrial societies that continue today., as well as the origin of humans. Economists: explore the ways in which people produce and exchange goods and services. Historians: are concerned with the peoples and events of the past and their significance for us today. Political Scientists: study international relations, governments. Psychologists: investigate personality and indivudal behavior. Sociology: the influence that society has on people’s attitudes and behavior and the ways in which people interact and shape society.  Study impact of earthquake that hit Port-au- Prince, Haiti Let’s consider how different social scientists would study the impact of the earthquake that hit Port-au-Prince in 2010. Economists: would discuss ways to rebuild Haiti’s economy, perhaps by diversifying it. Psychologists: would study individual cases of emotional stress caused by the traumatic event. Sociologists: they might study the use of new media, such as Twitter, to funnel donations. They migt conduct research on the adoption of Haitian orphans. Sociology and Common Sense Most people have a common sense notion of how human societies operate. However, our common sense notions are often influenced by the dominant ideologies prevalent in societies and communities in which we live. By questioning our common sense understanding of the world, sociology introduces us to other ways of seeing and explaining social reality, highlighting the complexity of the social World. Sociology focuses on the study of human behaviour. Yet we all have experience with human behavior and at least some knowledge of it. Sociology and Common Sense All of us might well have theories about why people become homeless, for example. =) our theories and opinions typically come from common sense. (from conversations and experiences). However, this common sense knowledge, while sometimes accurate. It is not always reliable. =) because it rests on commonly held beliefs rather than on systematic analysis of facts.  Sociology and Common Module 1 Sense █ Sociologists do not accept something as fact because “everyone knows it” – Each piece of information must be tested, recorded, and analyzed Women tend to be chattier than men Sociology and Common Sense Contrary to the common notion that women tend to be chatty compared to men, researchers have found little difference between the sexes in terms of their talkativeness. =) they found that men and women spoke about 16.000 words per day (Melh et al. 2007). =) sociologists do not accept something as a fact because «everyone knows it». THE ORIGINS OF SOCIOLOGY Change, transformation and sociology The Enlightenment: The Birth of a New Age (1750-1800) Key ideas : The Rise of Rationalism: The belief that reason is the primary source of knowledge and that all problems can be solved through reason. ◦ The philosophers emphasized the importance of reason and rationality as means and methods of organizing information and knowledge based on experience and experiment (Hamilton, 1996, p. 23). Individual liberty: The notion that every individual has the right to self- governance The Principle of Equality: The idea that all people are born equal and deserve equal rights Tolerance: The belief that different beliefs and ideas should be respected. The Scientific Revolution and Belief in Progress: Key Takeaways: The pre-Enlightenment social order was highly structured and hierarchical. The Church played a central role in shaping this order. The feudal system and the estate system were reflections of the broader hierarchical worldview. The Enlightenment challenged these traditional ideas and paved the way for new ways of thinking about society and the individual. The Enlightenment was a period characterized by the belief that human reason could explain everything and that it was possible for societies to progress. Philosophers living in this period questioned existing orders and produced ideas for a new world order. In general, the philosophes agreed on the following principles and ideas: reason, empiricism, science, universalism, progress, individualism, toleration, freedom, uniformity, and secularism How the Enlightenment influenced the French Revolution? The ideas of the Enlightenment had a crucial impact on French society and played a crucial role in the outbreak of the revolution Pre-Revolutionary France: Until the French Revolution, France was ruled by an absolute monarchy and society experienced deep social and economic inequalities. Enlightenment ideas made these inequalities and injustices more visible, paving the way for the revolution. Opposition to absolute monarchy: The French Revolution led to the overthrow of the absolute monarchy and the establishment of a more democratic form of government. Emphasis on equality: The Enlightenment emphasis on equality was reflected in the revolutionary slogan "liberty, equality, fraternity." Protection of individual rights: The Enlightenment's focus on individual rights led to the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, a foundational document of the French Revolution. Separation of church and state: Enlightenment thinkers advocated for the separation of church and state. The French Revolution weakened the ties between the Church and the state. In conclusion, the French Revolution can be seen as a practical application of Enlightenment ideals. The ideas of Enlightenment thinkers provided the intellectual framework for the revolution and its goals of creating a more just and equitable society. Key concepts : Absolute Monarchy Class Differences and Inequality Economic Crisis Spread of Enlightenment Ideas The Revolution’s Effects on the World The French Revolution is an important event that affected not only France but the entire world. The revolution contributed greatly to the spread of concepts such as republicanism, democracy and human rights and to the shaping of the modern world. Key Concepts: Republicanism and Democracy The Declaration of Human Rights The Strengthening of Nationalism Reactions to the Enlightenment The philosophes’ ideas were also viewed by the ruling classes as dangerous and revolutionary, despite that the philosophes themselves did not consider themselves as rebels and revolutionaries. One of the most extreme reactions to the Enlightenment was proposed by Louis de Bonald.His solution to the French Revolution was a return to the old system and the assumed harmony and peace, which he thought characterized the Middle Ages (Ritzer,2000, p. 11). He argued since God is the source of society, a focus on reason is inferior to traditional and religious beliefs and ideas. His logic was that if society is created by God, then people should not attempt to interfere with the divine plan and change any aspect of society, a holy creation. For him, there had always been an authority higher than and superior to humans The conservatives emphasized the importance of extra-individual entities, such as collectives or groups, which were central to the maintenance of society Traditional forms of society, such as the monogamous family, patriarchal relations, and the monarchy, were viewed as central to the reestablishment of social order. The critics of the Enlightenment were characterized by “antimodernist sentiment[s]”. Many of the thinkers reacting to the Enlightenment considered tradition, authority, and community as important sources of social cohesion Change, transformation and sociology Economic order in modernity is influenced by the rise of capitalism and industrialism, which have had both positive and negative consequences for groups and peoples around the world. This resulted in structural changes and transformed the ways in which people’s activities were organized and how work was conceptualized in modern societies. - Industrialization refers to a period of history “when there was a structural change in the economy from … rural, agricultural setting, with some manufacturing and trade and modest rates of population and economic growth, to a more urbanized, industrial country with a significant demographic upsurge The rise of capitalist modes of production and organization were influential in the formation of modern societies in light of corresponding political transformations, the changing characteristics of the state, and technological innovations. Industrial Revolution (18th century) Changes in society with the Industrial revolution: Population growth Migration to cities Increase in life expectancy Division of labor Changing management styles Ideological differences Changing the quality of interpersonal relations Development of the education system Increase in consumption Development of technology Population growth Migration to cities Increase in life expectancy Division of labor Changing management styles Ideological differences Changing the quality of interpersonal relations Development of the education system Increase in consumption Development of technology Changes in society with the industrial revolution Industrial Revolution (2) Consequences : this system of production generated huge poverty and mass suffering. Slums, bad conditions of life… It weakened families and social relations : « anonymous societies ». Definition of anonymous : impersonal, no particularity. you don’t know your neighbour. Industrial Revolution (3) Change in social relations : it eroded traditions that guided members of small communities. Urban growth dramatically changed people’s lives. Cities churned with strangers (anonymous). Overcrowded cities. Housing problem Social problems : poverty, disease, pollution, crime, homelessness. City Life Cities grew around factories These cities grew rapidly, without planning Working people lived in slums The lack of planning meant that there was no running water, or sanitation system 36 Working Life in Factories Factory work was difficult and dangerous Typical shifts lasted 12 to 16 hours If you complained, you were fired. If you got sick, you were fired. If you got hurt and could no longer work, you were fired. 37 Industrial revolution These revolutions have dissolved the forms of social organisation. Traditions were crumbling. 1- Scientific discoveries and technological advances that produced a factory based industrial economy. 2- Factories drew millions of people from countryside, causing an explosive growth of cities. 3- People in these burgeoning industrial cities soon entertained new ideas about democracy and political rights. 4- The stable communities in which most people had lived for centuries started to decline. (ex. Family) =) The Industrial Revolution led to heavy mechanization of traditional work. =) Transportation is improved as steam locomotives was developed, new agricultural tools, urbanization, improvements in the printing press and the introduction of the factory system. This meant: RAPID SOCIAL CHANGE. AUGUSTE COMTE (1798- 1857)  AUGUSTE COMTE He is the father of sociology. Tried to understand the society. Using Science to understand society. He wanted sociology to apply the same rigorous scientific methods to the study of society that physists and chemists use to study physical world. Universal laws.  AUGUSTE COMTE No intuition but experiment : Positivism Definition of positivism : knowledge is based on natural phenomena and their properties and relations as verified by the empirical sciences. Observation, comparison and experimentation. By understanding the causal relationships between events, scientists can predict how future events will occur. AUGUSTE COMTE Comte wanted to understand : - how human society could be improved; - how society operates. =) for Comte, to achieve this objective : develop a scientific approach to society. History and evolution of society. AUGUSTE COMTE From the Greek and Latin words meaning the study of society, Comte came to describe his work as “Sociology” (Socio- Logos). How human society could be improved? How society actually operates ?  3 stages theory AUGUSTE COMTE His main sociological theory was the law of three stages, which held that all human societies and all forms of human knowledge evolve through three distinct stages from primitive to advanced: ◦ the theological stage ◦ the metaphysical stage ◦ the positive stage The key variable in defining these stages was the way a people understand the concept of causation or think about their place in the world. Comte’s Theory : Law of three Stages 1- Theological Stage :  In the theological stage, humans explain causes in terms of the will of anthropocentric gods (the gods cause things to happen).  Thoughts about the world were guided by religion : society is an expression of God’s will. Divine plan In other words, ancient people believed that everything around them was a sign of active gods influencing their lives - Involve a vast range of human societies from the simplest tribal societies to more complex kingdoms. - This stage lasted from the 14th until about 18th. Comte’s Theory : Law of three Stages 2-Metaphysical Society: not God’s will. Stage : Analysing society by Militarists and feudal societies looking at human.  Humans explain causes in terms of abstract, “speculative” ideas like Ex : selfishness, nature, natural rights, or “self-evident” truths. competition, selfish In this stage, phenomena are explained by human nature. abstract forces, such as social order, human rights, law, equality, intelligence of nature. There is no God involved; instead, a set of abstract forces governs societal matters. Comte's metaphysical stage is considered as part of the development of scientific thinking and social evolution.  Comte’s Theory : Law of three Stages 3) Scientific Stage - Corresponds to what Comte called industrial society. -Understand the society by using science. -Positivism : a mean to understand the world based on science.  Society as a system AUGUSTE COMTE System His key insight was that societies had to be understood as complex systems. They are organic wholes with a unity similar to that of biological organisms. The human body is a biological system of parts that are connected together into a living whole. Similarly: Society may be seen as a cohesive and integrated whole. Society as a system The parts of the society are not simply individuals, but social institutions. Def institutions A society consist of family and kinship institutions, political inst, economic inst., religious... These do not exist in isolation but are interdependent parts of the whole social system. Change in any one institution is likely to have consequences for the other institutions to which it is connected. Auguste Comte Comte identified two broad branches of sociology, corresponding to two ways in which social systems could be studied : -social statics : the study of the coexistence of institutions in a system, their structures and their functions; =) how society is held together. Auguste Comte -Social dynamics : the study of change in institutions and systems over time, their development and progress. 2- HERBERT SPENCER ( 1820- 1903) HERBERT SPENCER He is an early important contributer to the discipline of Sociology. He tried to understand the society just like Auguste Comte. He didn’t try to correct or improve society. He hoped to understand it better Spencer was a student of both the human body and society.  Drawing on Charles Darwin’s study On the Origin of Species, Spencer applied the concept of evolution of the species to societies in order to explain how they change or develop over time.- Spencer’s approach on societal change gained significant popularity. Unlike Comte, Spencer suggested that since societies are to be bound eventually, one need not be highly critical of present social arrangements or work actively for social 3- émile Durkheim ( 1858- 1917) Keywords: 1. Social Facts 2. Types of Solidarity 3. Anomie 4. Types of Suicide  3 – Emile Durkheim Durkeim insisted that behavior must be understood within a larger social context, not just in individualistic terms. He developed a basic thesis to to help explain all forms of society. A social fact can only be explained by a social fact. Anti-psychologism Durkheim always conceived of societies as subject to conditions of moral "health" or "illness," and the sociologist as a kind of "physician".... According to him, like other forms of group behavior, religion makes strong a group’s cooperation or solidarity. Durkheim’s main interests was the consequences of work in modern societies in the post-industrial society. Types of solidarity Primitive societies were held together because most people performed similar tasks and shared values, language, and symbols. Low division of labor. mechanical solidarity: a shared collective consciousness with harsh punishment for deviation from the norms. Modern societies: People served many different functions in society and their ability to carry out their function depended upon others being able to carry out theirs.  organic solidarity: a complex system of interrelated parts, working together to maintain stability, i.e., an organism. Different specializations tied to each other. Durkheim According to his view, the growing separation of work force in industrial societies, as workers became much more specialized in their tasks, led to what he called Anomie. Anomie refers to the loss of direction felt in a society when social control of individual behavior has become ineffective. Often, the state of anomie occurs during a time of deep social change, when people have lost their sense of purpose or direction. In a period of anomie, people are so confused and unable to cope with the new social environment that they resort to suicide. He was worried about the dangers that loneliness and isolation might present a problem for modern industrial society. Types of suicide Egoistic suicide relates to the person being alone or an outsider and subsequently they see themselves alone within the world. This type of person has a low social interaction with others. Altruistic suicide is when social group involvement is too high, expectation from a group is being met at a very high level such as a sacrifice for a cult or religion. Another example would be a Marta or a suicide bomber. Anomic suicide relates to a low degree of regulation and this kind of suicide is carried out during periods of considerable stress and frustration. A good example would be great financial loss or when the financial market that person controls collapses with severe consequences for many involved.  UNDERSTANDING SOCIOLOGY 4- MAX WEBER (1864- 1920) 4-MAX WEBER Max Weber was another important early theorist. He was born in Germany. Weber studied legal and economic history, but gradually developed an interest in sociology. He was a proffessor at various German universities. According to Weber, there was a key conceptual tool: The ideal type. UNDERSTANDING SOCIOLOGY An ideal type is a construct or model for evaluating specific cases. In his works, Weber identified various characteristics of Bureaucracy(authorities) as an ideal type. In presenting this model of bureaucracy, Weber was not describing any particular organization, nor was he using the term ideal in a way that suggested a positive evaluation. Instead, his purpose was to provide a useful standard for measuring how bureaucratic an actual organization is  UNDERSTANDING SOCIOLOGY 5- KARL MARX ( 1818- 1883) 5- KARL MARX  Karl Marx shared with Durkheim and Weber a dual interest in abstract philosophical issues and the concrete reality of everyday life.  Marx and his friends Friedrich Engels prepared a platform called The Communist Manifesto in which they argued that the masses of people (working class) with no resources other than their labor (whom they referred to as the proletariat ) should unite to fight for the overthrow of capitalist societies. In Marx’s analysis, society was fundamentally divided between two classes that clashed in pursuit of their own interests. When he examined the industrial societies of his time, such as Germany, England, and the United States, he saw the factory as the center of conflict between the exploiters (the owners of the means of production) and the exploited (the workers). Marx argued that the working class should destroy the existing class system.Also, he emphasized the group identifications and associations that infulence an individual’s place in society. Module 3 Major Theoretical Perspectives █ Functionalist perspective █ Conflict perspective █ Interactionist perspective 70 Theory and Perspective A theory is a way to explain different aspects of social interactions and create testable propositions about society. Durkheim’s proposition that differences in suicide rate can be explained by differences in the degree of social integration in different communities is a theory.  What is Sociological Theory? Why do people commit suicide? One traditional common sense answer is that people inherit the desire to kill themselves. Another view is that sunspots drive people to take their lives. Sociologists are not particularly interested in why any one individual commits suicide: they are more concerned with identifying the social forces that systematically cause some people to take their own life. 72 Emile Durkheim The World Health Organization: estimates that 1 million people die from suicide every year. Emile D. Dev a theory about the relationship between suicide and social factors. Durkheim was not interested with the personnalities of individual suicide victims, but rather with suicide rates. 73 Durkheim – Suicide- Theory Nothing to do with sun or inherited tendencies. =) he focused on social factors such as the cohesiveness or lack of cohesiveness of religious, social and occupational groups. =) for Durk, suicide is related to group life (although it is a solitary act). ◦ People without religious affiliation; ◦ The unmarried; ◦ Soldiers Had a higher rates of suicide. =) Durk. Concluded that the suicide rates of a society reflected the extend to which people were or were not integrated into the group life of the society. 74 Durkheim – Suicide- Theory Durk offered a more scientific explanation for the causes of suicide than that of inherited tendencies or the sunspots. Of course, a theory is not a final statement about human behavior. =) Researchers have suggested that Las Vegas’s rapid growth and constant influx of tourists have undermined the community’s sense of permanence. Although gambling and losing while gambling may seem a likely precipitating factor in suicides there, careful study of the data has allowed researchers to dismiss that explanation. =) the sense of community cohesiveness is lacking. 75 Perspectives Sociology is a multi-perspectival science: a number of distinct perspectives or paradigms offer competing explanations of social phenomena. Paradigms are philosophical and theoretical frameworks used within a discipline to formulate theories, generalizations, and the research performed in support of them. Underlying organizing principles that guide research. Is multi-perspectivality a sign of underdeveloped science? Natural sciences: Consensus because of the objects (indiffferent to observ.) Social sciences: Perspectival because of its object (humans, sensitive to ) The functionalist perspective Functionalism is a framework for building theory that envisages society as a complex system whose parts work together to promote solidarity and stability. 77  The functionalist perspective  Think of society as a living organism in which each part of the organism contributes to its survival.  This view is the functionalist perspective, which emphasizes the way in which the parts of a society are structured to protect its determination(stability).  This perspective begins by recognising that our lives are guided by social structure. The functionalist perspective Social structure: relatively stable patterns of social behaviour. EX : Social structure is what gives shape to the family, directs people to exchange greetings on the street... Second, this perspective leads us to understand social structure in terms of its social functions, or consequences for the operation of society. =) Emphasizes the way parts of a society are structured to maintain its stability 79 Herbert Spencer (1820–1903) Spencer was a student of both the human body and society, and he came to see that the two have much in common. 80 Herbert Spencer The structural parts of the human body include the skeleton,muscles and various internal organs. These elements are interdependent, each contributing to the survival of the entire organism. 81 Herbert Spencer In the same way, reasoned Spencer, various social structures are interdependent, working in concert to preserve society. The functional perspective, then, organises sociological observations by identifying various structures of society and investigating the function of each one. Ex: family, social classes, institutions... =) We can analyse the religious beliefs and customs of a society, for example, by showing how they relate to other institutions within it, for the different parts of a society develop in close relation to one another. 82  UNDERSTANDING SOCIOLOGY Social structure is a relatively stable type of social behavior. Talcott Parsons (1902-1979), a Harvard University sociologist, was a key figure in the development of functionalist theory. Parsons was greatly infulenced by the work of Emile Durkheim , Max Weber, and other European sociologists. Robert Merton MANIFEST AND LATENT FUNCTIONS: Robert Merton(1968) made an important distinction between manifest(clear) and latent (hidden) functions. MANIFEST FUNCTIONS According to Robert Merton, Manifest funtions of institutions are open, stated, and concious functions. They involve the intended, recognized consequences of an aspect of society, such as an university’s role in certifying academic competence and excellence.  UNDERSTANDING SOCIOLOGY LATENT FUNCTIONS Latent functions are unconscious or unintended functions that may reflect hidden purposes of an institution. To illustrate this distinction between manifest and latent functions, Merton used the example of a rain dance performed by the Hopi Tribe of Arizona and New Mexico. The Hopi believe that the ceremony will bring the rain they need for their crops (manifest function). This is why they organize and participate in it. But the rain dance, Merton argued, using Durkheim's theory of religion, also has the effect of promoting the cohesion(loyalty) of the Hopi society (Latent funtion). Example A college catalog typically states various functions of the institutions. It may inform you, for ex., that the university intends to «offers each student a broad education in classical and contemporary thought, in the humanities ad in sciences». However, it would be quite a surprise to find a catalog that declared « this university was founded to assist people in finding a marriage partner.» =) no catalog will declare this as the purpose of the university. =) yet, societal institutions serve many functions, some of them subtle: The university in fact does facilitate mate selection. 86  UNDERSTANDING SOCIOLOGY DYSFUNCTIONS:  Merton also distinguished between functions and dysfunctions(abnormality in the function of a specified bodily system.)  Dysfunctional aspects of social behavior means focusing on features of social life that challenge the existing order of things.  The evaluation of a dysfunction depends on one’s own values.  Dysfunctional (not operating properly) to describe the effects of social elements on society,  For example, crime is dysfunctional in that it is associated with physical violence, loss of property, and fear.  UNDERSTANDING SOCIOLOGY According to Durkheim and other functionalists, crime is also functional for society because it leads to heightened(increase) awareness of shared moral connection and increased social cohesion(loyalty). For example, it is mistaken to suppose that religion is always functional - that it contributes only to social cohesion. When two groups support different religions or even different versions of the same religion, the result can be major social conflicts, causing widespread social disruption. Thus, wars have often been fought between religious communities - as can be seen in the struggles between Protestants and Catholics in European history. The conflict perspective The conflict perspective Assumes social behavior best understood in terms of conflict or tension between competing groups Conflict theorists highlight the importance of divisions in society. In doing so, they concentrate on issues of power, inequality and struggle. 89 The conflict perspective Guided by this perspective, sociologists investigate how factors such as social class, race,ethnicity, sex and age are linked to unequal distribution of money, power, education and social prestige. A conflict analysis points out that, rather than promoting the operation of society as a whole, social structure typically benefits some people while depriving others. 90 The conflict perspective conflict between dominant and disadvantaged categories of people – the rich in relation to the poor, men versus women. Typically, those on top strive to protect their privileges; the disadvantaged counter by attempting to gain more resources for themselves. 91 CONFLICT PERSPECTIVE Like functionalists, sociologists employing conflict theories emphasize the importance of structures within societies. They also advance a comprehensive 'model' to explain how society works. However, conflict theorists reject functionalism's emphasis on consensus(general agreement). Instead, they highlight the importance of divisions in society. They concentrate on issues of power, inequality and struggle.  UNDERSTANDING SOCIOLOGY Conflict theorists examine the tensions(stress) between dominant and disadvantaged groups within society and seek to understand how relationships of control are established and perpetuated(continued). An influential approach within conflict theory is Marxism, named after Karl Marx, whose work emphasized class conflict. there are today schools of Marxist thought that take very different theoretical positions. In all of its versions, Marxism differs from most other traditions of sociology in that its authors see it as a combination of sociological analysis and political reform.  UNDERSTANDING SOCIOLOGY KARL MARX Marxism is supposed to generate a programme of radical political change. INTERACTIONIST PERSPECTIVE Interactionism Meaning: the theory that there are two circumstances,mind and body, each of which can have an effect on the other. Functionalist and Conflict theorists both analyze large- scale, society-wide patterns of behavior, but theorists who take the interactionist perspective, generalize about everyday forms of social interaction in order to explain society as a whole. Interactionism, also referred to as Symbolic Interactionism, is a sociological framework in which human beings are viewed as living in a world of meaningful objects. Objects may include material things, actions, other people, relationships, and even symbols. Interactionist Perspective Interactionisms see symbols as an especially important part of human communication. Symbols: have a shared social meaning that is understood by all members of a society. Ex: man / woman in toilets Ex: green you can pass / red you have to stop Ex: the symbol of heart =) universal. Ex: but some symbols are not universal : fingers to show one, two, three. 96 Interactionist Perspective If you smile : you are happy. Another culture might have use different gestures to convey a feeling of respect or defiance. =) in another culture : smiling means I feel unconfortable. =) these types of interactions are classified as forms of nonverbal communication. It can includes many other gestures, facial expressions and postures. 97  Interactionist Perspective Workers interacting on the job, encounters in public places like bus stops and parks, behavior in small groups... =) all these aspects of microsociology catch the attention of interactionists. =) theorists who take the interactionist perspective generalize about everyday forms of social interaction in order to explain society as a whole. Symbolic interaction theory analyzes society by addressing the subjective meanings that people impose on objects, events, and behaviors. For example, why would young people smoke cigarettes even when all objective medical evidence points to the dangers of doing so? Symbolic meanings of smoking? 98 Blumer’s definition Humans act toward things on the basis of the meanings they ascribe to those things. The meaning of such things is derived from, or arises out of, the social interaction that one has with others and the society. These meanings are handled in, and modified through, an interpretative process used by the person in dealing with the things he or she encounters (Blumer 1969). Think about a restaurant and somebody is coming towards your table. What if the person is a waitress? What if she is not? UNDERSTANDING SOCIOLOGY George Herbert Mead (1863-1931)  He is the founder of the interactionist perspective.  Mead claims that language allows us to become self- conscious beings - aware of our own individuality and able to see ourselves from the outside as others see us. The key element in this process is the symbol.  A symbol is something that stands for something else.  Non-verbal gestures or forms of communication are also symbols.For example, making a rude gesture has symbolic value.  UNDERSTANDING SOCIOLOGY Mead argued that humans rely on shared symbols and understandings in their interactions with one another. Because human beings live in a richly symbolic universe, virtually all interactions between human individuals involve an exchange of symbols. Comparison  Levels of analysis: microsociology and macrosociology Microsociology:The study of everyday behavior in situations of face- to-face interaction is usually called microsociology. Macrosociology: Macrosociology is the analysis of large-scale social systems, like the political system or the economic order. It also includes the analysis of long term processes of change, such as the development of industrialism.  MACROANALYSIS Macroanalysis is essential if we are to understand the institutional background of daily life. The ways in which people live their everyday lives are greatly affected by the broader institutional framework, For example, the daily cycle of activities of a culture like that of the medieval(Middle Ages) period is compared with life in an industrialized urban(city) environment.  MICRO-STUDIES Micro-studies are in turn necessary for lightening broad institutional patterns, Face-to-face interaction is clearly the main basis of all forms of social organization, no matter how large scale. We could analyze, for example, the interaction of directors in the boardroom, people working in the various offices, or the workers on the factory floor. We would not build up a picture of the whole corporation in this way, since some of its business is transacted through printed materials, letters, the telephone and computers.