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Questions and Answers

What is the main focus of cultural diversity?

  • The superiority of one culture over another
  • The occurrence of various cultural groups within a society (correct)
  • The historical evolution of dominant cultures
  • The assimilation of all cultures into one

Which of the following best defines achieved status?

  • A status gained through personal effort and accomplishments (correct)
  • A social role which determines life choices
  • A social position one is born into
  • A designation primarily influenced by family background

In Freud's personality structure, which component is known as the 'moral conscience'?

  • Id
  • Self
  • Ego
  • Superego (correct)

What does role strain refer to?

<p>Tension among roles within a single status (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which term describes the negative social label associated with a particular attribute or identity?

<p>Stigma (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is primary socialization primarily associated with?

<p>Learning from family and household dynamics (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which sociological perspective emphasizes the meanings individuals attach to their interactions?

<p>Symbolic interactionism (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best exemplifies ascribed status?

<p>A person born into a royal family (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does 'doing gender' refer to at the individual level?

<p>The routine accomplishment involved in everyday interactions (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is an example of a third sex in Asian cultures?

<p>Kathoey (C), Hijra (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What defines crime in a societal context?

<p>Behaviors that break formally enacted laws (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a key criticism regarding norms and values attached to gender roles?

<p>They ignore the effects of structural and institutional factors (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is an example of negative deviance?

<p>Stealing from a store (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What concept asserts that gender and sexuality are culturally constructed?

<p>Agency of individuals (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which theory suggests that deviance may have biological causes?

<p>Physiological Theories (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is implied by the phrase 'undoing gender'?

<p>Changing personal views on gender (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do individuals contribute to the 'making' of gender at a societal level?

<p>Enacting, resisting, or negotiating societal norms (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role does the criminal justice system play in society?

<p>Responding to law violations (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the concept of 'gender fluidity' illustrate in certain cultures?

<p>The perception that gender can change over time (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT an example of deviance?

<p>Attending a religious service (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is one unintended consequence of 'making gender'?

<p>Reinforcement of gender norms (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What did Cesare Lombroso claim about criminals?

<p>They have unique biological features (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes social control?

<p>Attempts to regulate behavior and thoughts (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the term 'deviance' primarily refer to?

<p>Activities that disrupt cultural norms (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a key characteristic of agrarian societies?

<p>They rely heavily on cultural beliefs. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In a class system, what primarily contributes to social mobility?

<p>Individual achievement (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to the Davis-Moore thesis, what is a function of social stratification?

<p>Encouraging productivity and efficiency in society. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What criticism is often raised against the Davis-Moore thesis?

<p>It underestimates the complexity of social inequality. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a primary focus of Karl Marx's perspective on social stratification?

<p>The ownership of means of production. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is one of the reasons given for the lack of a Marxist revolution in capitalist societies?

<p>A fragmented capitalist class. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the concept of a 'M-shaped society' refer to?

<p>A society polarized between the extreme rich and extreme poor. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following may be considered a benefit of social stratification?

<p>It can encourage individuals to strive for higher positions. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a characteristic of mesomorphs according to Sheldon?

<p>Less sensitive towards others (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the Labelling perspective suggest about deviance?

<p>Deviant behavior is defined by others in society. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does Durkheim view deviance in society?

<p>It affirms cultural values and norms. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to Merton's Strain Theory, what does 'innovation' represent?

<p>Acceptance of cultural goals but rejection of institutional means. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What do critics of psychological theories of deviance argue?

<p>They overlook the role of socialization. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which theory emphasizes the role of social power in defining deviance?

<p>Conflict perspective (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does retreatism entail in Merton's Strain Theory?

<p>Rejection of both cultural goals and institutional means. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is one criticism of Merton's Strain Theory?

<p>It assumes a common value consensus. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the phrase 'Whore is dangerously free' imply about women's sexuality in patriarchal societies?

<p>Women can gain autonomy by embracing their sexuality. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the concept of 'families of choice'?

<p>Relationships formed by individuals based on personal bonds rather than biology. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are 'conduct-based rights' in the context of sexual citizenship?

<p>Rights regarding participation in sexual activities. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is an example of a model within queer critique regarding intimate relationships?

<p>2 + 1 indicating a primary and secondary relationship. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do ethical sluts view sexual relationships?

<p>They embrace a wide array of sexual possibilities. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the term 'serial monogamy' refer to in contemporary marriage trends?

<p>Engaging in a succession of monogamous relationships. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best aligns with the sexual citizenship framework?

<p>Recognition of the right to self-definition. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a key characteristic of families in the context of 'doing family'?

<p>Families are defined by everyday practices and interactions. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the context of sexual citizenship, identity-based rights focus on which of the following?

<p>Rights tied to self-definition and self-expression. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement contrasts with the ethical slut perspective understood from sex positivity?

<p>Sexual choices should involve coercion and manipulation. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Eurocentrism

A perspective that prioritizes European culture and values as superior to other cultures.

Cultural Shock

Disorientation and confusion experienced when encountering a different culture.

Cultural Lag

When parts of a culture change at different speeds, leading to imbalance.

Dominant Culture

The prevailing cultural norms and values widely accepted by a society.

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Counterculture

A group that actively opposes the dominant culture and its values.

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Subculture

A group with distinct values and practices within a larger culture, but doesn't oppose it.

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Primary Socialization

Learning basic values and norms from family during early childhood.

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Secondary Socialization

Learning from institutions like school, peers, and media later in life.

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Gender Roles Across Cultures

Different societies have unique interpretations of masculinity and femininity, shaping expectations and behaviors.

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Margaret Mead's Research

Anthropologist Margaret Mead studied gender roles in three New Guinea tribes, demonstrating the cultural variability of masculinity and femininity.

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Third Sex in Asia

Some Asian cultures recognize individuals who don't fit traditional binary gender categories, such as hijra in India and kathoey in Thailand.

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Gender Fluidity in Chinese Folktales

Characters like Guan-yin and stories like the Legend of the White Snake depict gender transformation, reflecting the fluidity of gender in traditional Chinese narratives.

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Doing Gender

This concept emphasizes how individuals perform gender through everyday interactions, reinforcing social norms and expectations.

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Making Gender

Social structures and processes shape and reproduce gender norms through individual actions and collective practices.

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Undoing Gender

Individuals can challenge and change gender norms in their own lives, while societal movements aim to unmake them through collective action.

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Unmaking Gender

This focuses on dismantling societal structures and norms that reinforce gender inequalities through activism and social change.

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Deviance

Actions that go against the accepted norms and expectations of a society.

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Social Control

The ways that society regulates individuals' thoughts and actions to maintain order and conformity.

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Informal Rules

Unwritten rules, customs, and traditions that guide behavior within a society.

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Formal Rules

Written rules or laws enforced by the legal system, such as criminal law.

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Criminal justice System

A system of institutions and processes responsible for enforcing criminal law, including police, courts, and prisons.

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Crime

Behavior that violates formal, written rules or laws.

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Cesare Lombroso's Theory

A theory suggesting that criminals are born with certain physical characteristics that predispose them to criminal behavior.

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Sheldon's Theory

A theory linking body types (mesomorphs, ectomorphs, endomorphs) to criminal behavior.

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Whore is Dangerously Free

A concept by Roberts (1992) that challenges societal norms by suggesting that a woman who embraces sexual freedom resists male power and enjoys autonomy, defying traditional notions of proper womanhood.

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Ethical Slut

A term coined by Easton & Liszt (1997) to describe a person who embraces a sex-positive philosophy, prioritizes consent, and is honest about their desires and actions.

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Families of Choice

A concept that challenges traditional family structures by recognizing chosen relationships, including same-sex partnerships and strong friendships, as equally valid and meaningful.

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Queer Critique of Intimate Relationships

An analysis of (hetero-)normative relationship models from a queer perspective, challenging traditional assumptions and proposing alternative models of intimacy based on mutual understanding and negotiation.

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Sexual Citizenship

A framework that recognizes and advocates for individual rights related to sexuality, including conduct-based, identity-based, and relationship-based rights.

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Conduct-Based Sexual Rights

Rights related to sexual practices in personal relationships, including the right to participate in sexual activity, the right to pleasure, and the right to sexual self-determination.

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Identity-Based Sexual Rights

Rights related to self-definition and the development of individual sexual identities, including the right to self-definition, the right to self-expression, and the right to self-realization.

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Relationship-Based Sexual Rights

Rights related to social recognition and validation of different forms of sexual relationships, including the right to consent, the right to choose partners, and the right to publicly recognized relationships.

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Serial Monogamy

A pattern of having multiple monogamous relationships consecutively, with the end of one relationship marking the beginning of another.

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Marriage-Like Institutions

Alternative forms of committed partnerships that provide similar legal and social recognition as traditional marriage, such as cohabitation, domestic partnership, civic union, and same-sex marriage.

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Mesomorphs and Deviance

According to Sheldon (1949) and Glueck & Glueck (1956), mesomorphs, individuals with a muscular build, are more prone to deviance. This is due to their less sensitive nature towards others and distant relationships with parents.

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Chromosomes and Deviance

Modern criminologists explore the potential link between specific chromosomes, like XYY, and criminal behavior. The theory suggests that chromosomal abnormalities may contribute to deviance.

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Unsuccessful Socialization

Psychological theories view deviance as a result of inadequate socialization. Individuals who fail to internalize societal norms and values are more likely to engage in deviant acts.

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Eysenck's Personality Traits

Hans Eysenck (1964) proposed that extroverted personality traits are associated with deviance. Extroverts seek stimulation and are more likely to engage in risky behaviors.

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Bowlby's Attachment Theory

John Bowlby (1946) argued that deprivation of maternal love during early childhood increases the likelihood of deviance. Lack of a secure attachment can lead to emotional and behavioral problems.

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Deviance and Cultural Norms

The functionalist perspective on deviance states that social norms vary across cultures, and therefore, what is considered deviant in one society may not be deviant in another.

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Labelling Theory

The labelling perspective argues that individuals become deviant when they are labeled as such by society. This label shapes their identity and behavior.

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Social Power and Deviance

The conflict perspective emphasizes that powerful groups define deviance to maintain their own interests. Rules and their enforcement are connected to social power dynamics.

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Agrarian Societies

Societies heavily reliant on agriculture, often with limited social mobility, where a person's life path (marriage, occupation) is largely predetermined. These societies often rest on strong traditional beliefs.

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Caste System

A rigid social stratification system based solely on birth, with little to no social mobility. Membership in a caste is fixed and determines a person's status, occupation, and social interactions.

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Class System

A social stratification system based on both birth and individual achievement. Unlike caste systems, class systems allow some degree of social mobility based on merit.

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Meritocracy

A system where social status and power are based on individual merit, talent, and achievement, rather than birth or social background.

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Davis-Moore Thesis

This theory argues that social stratification is beneficial to society as it motivates people to fill important positions and work harder to achieve higher rewards.

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Karl Marx's Theory

Marx believed that social stratification is rooted in the ownership of the means of production, creating conflict between capitalists who own capital and workers who sell their labor.

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Fragmentation of the Capitalist Class

This concept explains that the capitalist class has become less unified and more diverse, potentially weakening their power and reducing the likelihood of a revolutionary movement.

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M-shaped Society

A society with increasing polarization, where a small elite group enjoys vast wealth and power, while a large segment of the population experiences poverty.

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Study Notes

Introduction to Sociology

  • Sociology is the systematic study of human social lives, groups, and societies.
  • It examines how the world came about and how it differs from previous generations.
  • It considers the future direction of societal changes.

Social Change and Modernity

  • Sociology analyses social change and the rise of modernity.
  • It involves understanding the features, causes, and potential outcomes of such changes.
  • A key aspect is the comparison between utopian and dystopian views.

Sociological Imagination

  • This concept encourages individuals to connect personal experiences to larger societal issues.
  • It helps to understand history and biography within the context of society.
  • This includes the ability to connect individual biographies with broader historical forces.

Major Sociological Perspectives

  • Structural-functionalist perspective: Views society as a complex system with interconnected parts that function to maintain stability and solidarity.
  • Social-conflict perspective: Emphasises the role of conflict between different groups with competing interests in shaping society.
  • Symbolic interactionist perspective: Focuses on the subjective meanings individuals give to social phenomena and how these meanings are socially constructed in daily interactions.

Gender/Feminist Perspective

  • Examines how social life is structured according to gender, highlighting the unequal status and subordinate roles of women.
  • Key slogan: "The personal is political."
  • Early key figures include Harriet Martineau and Jane Addams.

Theoretical Dilemmas

  • Involves studying human actions versus social structure, the concept of consensus and conflict, and the problem of gender.
  • It examines the evolution of the modern world.

Three Dimensions of Sociology

  • Scientific sociology: This perspective seeks to understand and control human behavior and uses sociological knowledge to inform public policies and manage social issues.
  • Interpretative sociology: Aims to uncover the meanings behind human actions, emphasizing the importance of cultural context for interpreting behavior.
  • Critical sociology: Examines social institutions that perpetuate injustice, focusing on challenging and changing these institutions by revealing their constructed nature.

Culture and Social Interaction

  • Culture encompasses a shared way of life within a society.
  • Key components of culture include symbols, language, beliefs, values, and norms.
  • Material culture includes the tangible artifacts of a society which demonstrate how human beings interact with each other.

Reproduction of Culture and Socialization

  • Primary socialization occurs within the family, while secondary socialization happens in schools, amongst peers, and elsewhere
  • Theories on socialization include those of Sigmund Freud, Jean Piaget, Lawrence Kohlberg, and Erik Erikson.

Status, Role, and Identity

  • Social positions and identities are shaped by ascribed and achieved statuses.
  • Roles represent expected behaviors associated with certain statuses.
  • Identity encompasses how individuals view themselves and how others see them.

Sociological Perspectives on Social Structures

  • Micro sociology focuses on the small-scale aspects of everyday life through the different perspectives of Phenomenology, Symbolic interactionism, and Goffman (dramaturgy).
  • Macro sociology focuses on broad societal structures.
  • Includes Social exchange theory.

Sociological Perspectives on Social Structures: The Social Construction of Reality

  • Humans are both products and creators of societies in which we live, with society as an objective reality.
  • Societal production involves processes: typification, sedimentation, externalization, habitualization, internalization, and socialization.
  • Includes symbolic interactionism.

Looking-Glass Self

  • Individuals develop a sense of self through the perceptions and reactions of others.
  • This includes imagining how others perceive them, then imagining the judgement of those perceptions, and finally, developing feelings about themselves based on these perceptions.
  • This 'looking glass self' is based on the 'I' (the active self) and the 'me'(the objective self).

The Social Self and Symbolic Interactionism

  • People's understanding of objects depends on the meaning those objects have for them.
  • Meanings are socially constructed and emerge through interaction.
  • People interpret and act upon meanings within their social interaction context.
  • Includes the tenets of symbolic interactionism: Human beings are active, creative actors; they act on the basis of symbolic meanings; they retrieve meanings through interactions; meanings change over time; interaction procedures affect meanings.

Social Rules and Talk

  • People use lay or folk methods to understand each other, relying on shared cultural assumptions.
  • Conversations are analyzed through the examination and precision of timing of interchanges (pauses, interruptions, etc.).
  • Interactions are situated within specific time and space parameters.

Social Structures in Everyday Life

  • Social life is a kind of a theatre drama.
  • Social occasions highlight social rules.
  • Individuals prepare for and enact roles.
  • Social interaction creates a particular social environment.

Emotional Labour

  • Emotional labour in the workforce is about managing emotions and creating publicly observable facial and bodily displays.
  • Includes different forms of labor: Physical, Mental, and Emotional.
  • The concepts of feeling rules and emotional labour are essential.

The Formation of Modern Societies

  • Lenski's concept of socio-cultural evolution describes the progression through various societies, from hunting and gathering to post-industrial societies.
  • Enlightenment and the project of modernity emphasize reason and progress and the ideas of the unity of humankind, as well as the struggle between utopian and dystopian societal arrangements.

Social Inequality: Class Stratification

  • Social stratification is a system of ranking people in a hierarchy.
  • There are various forms of social stratification, such as the caste system and the class system. The class system is typical of industrial societies.
  • Different perspectives of the class system include, but are not limited to the functionalist viewpoint (Davis-Moore thesis) and the conflict perspective (Marxism). The Davis-Moore thesis focuses on how social inequality is beneficial for a society. This contrasts with the conflict perspective which examines the issue of social domination and inequality in capitalist societies.
  • Other key figures include Weber, who adds a multidimensional view focusing on the interplay between class power, social power, and political power.
  • Bourdieu proposed that different groups differentiate themselves by patterns of consumption.

Deviance

  • Activities inconsistent with societal norms and expectations.
  • It's not merely individual actions, but a product of social factors and interactions, labeling, responses, and definitions of these actions by others.
  • Sociological perspectives, such as functionalism, labeling theory, conflict theory, and feminist perspectives, all analyze aspects of deviance.

Mass Media and Culture

  • Mass media functions include information dissemination, socialization, entertainment, and propaganda.
  • Theoretical perspectives on mass media include the mass society theory, the neo-Marxist tradition, the liberal-pluralist perspective, an audience as a perspective, the reception analysis, and Hall's encoding/decoding model.
  • Media can be viewed as a source of social relations and acts to naturalize the current social order as inevitable. Media and cultural industries have become good business investments for multinational corporations.

Sociological Research Methods

  • Two common methods are survey research and ethnography.
  • Survey research typically involves collecting data from a large number of individuals using questionnaires or interviews, and is good for statistical analysis.
  • Ethnography and the Biographical approach usually involves studying stigmatized social groups in their natural setting through observation and in-depth interviews. These methods are used to uncover meanings behind social behavior.
  • Experiments are usually done in psychology and attempt to measure cause-and-effect relationships under highly controlled conditions. Unobtrusive research uses available data such as statistics or census data; policy analysis, historical analysis, content analysis, and media analysis.
  • Ethical implications for any study should also be considered (i.e., consent, risk of harm, confidentiality, anonymity, power elements, and erotic elements).

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