Research Methods PDF: Social Research - Amity Directorate

Research Methods-I 1 Module - I: Social Research Notes...

Research Methods-I 1 Module - I: Social Research Notes ity Structure: Unit1.1 Meaning, scope and significance of social research 1.1.1 Meaning of social research rs 1.1.2 scope of social research 1.1.3 significance of social research Unit-1.2 Conceptualization and formulation of hypothesis ve 1.2.1 Conceptualization of hypothesis 1.2.2 formulation of hypothesis Unit-1.3 Scientific Study of Social Phenomena. 1.3.1 Scientific Study of Social Phenomena. ni Unit-1.4 The scientific method and logic in social science 1.4.1 The scientific method & logic in social science U Unit-1.5 Objectivity and subjectivity in social science 1.5.1 Objectivity in social science 1.5.2 subjectivity in social science Unit-1.6 Positivism and empiricism in sociology ity 1.6.1 Positivism in sociology 1.6.2 empiricism in sociology Unit-1.7 Social fact & Sociological explanation 1.7.1 social fact & Sociological explanation m Unit-1.8 Critique of positivism 1.8.1 Critique of positivism )A Self work on 1 Hour practice on developing a research concept and formulation of hypothesis (c Amity Directorate of Distance & Online Education  2 Research Methods-I Unit-1.1: Meaning, Scope, and Significance of Social Notes Research ity Objectives At the end of the chapter, you will be able to comprehend: Meaning of Social Research rs Scope and Significance of Social Research Conceptualization and Formation of Hypothesis Scientific Study of Social Phenomenon ve The Scientific Method 1.1.1 Meaning of Social Research Introduction ni Research is an important and successful tool forpropelling mankind forward. Without systematic research, there would have been very little development. John W. Best has rightly said “The secret of our cultural development has been research, pushing back the areas of ignorance by discovering new truths, which in turn, lead U to better ways of doing things and better products.” Scientific research hasled to advancement in some fields of life. New products, new facts, new ideas and new ways of doing two things are being discovered due to an increase in substantial research in the physical, biological, social and psychological fields. In today’s era, research is no longer limited to the science laboratory.In addition to sociologists, anthropologists, ity economists, and educators, manufacturers, agricultural experts, and archaeologists are conducting research in their respective fields. Although claims and opinions are part of sociology, sociologists produce sound sociological research by combining empirical evidence (that is, evidence validated by direct experience and/or observation) with the scientific method or an interpretive framework. They also rely on a theoretical framework that provides an interpretive m foundation for making sense of scientific findings. A truly scientific sociological study of the social situations discussed in the cafeteria would include the following steps: defining a specific question, gathering information and resources through observation, formulating a hypothesis, testing the hypothesis in a reproducible manner, analyzing )A and drawing conclusions from the data, publishing the results, and anticipating future developments. No topic is off bounds when sociologists apply the sociological perspective and begin to ask questions. Every facet of human behavior has the potential to be investigated. Sociologists raise concerns about the world that humans have made and inhabit. As people walk around the world, they see patterns of behavior. Sociologists (c have discovered workplace patterns that have transformed industries, family patterns that have enlightened parents, and education patterns that have aided structural changes in classrooms using sociological methods and systematic research within the framework of the scientific method and a scholarly interpretive perspective. Amity Directorate of Distance & Online Education  Research Methods-I 3 Definition of Research Notes ity 1. C.C. Crawford: “Research is simply a systematic and refined technique of thinking, employing specialized tools, instruments & procedures in order to obtain a more adequate solution of a problem than would be possible under ordinary means.” It starts with a problem, collects data or facts, analyses these critically based decisions actual evidence. It evolves original work instead of mere exercise of personal opinion. It is quantitative, seeking to know not only what but much and measurement rs is therefore a central feature of it. 2. Webster Dictionary: “A careful inquiry or examination in seeking facts or principles, diligent investigation in order to ascertain something.” 3. Francis Bacon: “Research is a power of suspending judgement with patience of ve meditating with pleasures of asserting with caution, of correcting with readiness of arranging thought with scrupulous plan.” 1.1.2 Scope of Social Research Social science deals with the study of society and the relationships among people ni within the society. It covers topics such as economics, sociology, commerce, and demography. People can rely upon social science research because it offers genuine information that has been scientifically proved.It also assists us in identifying the solutions to various social issues. It emphasizes the importance of determining the root cause of any problem in order to develop a more efficient solution. U From the healthcare industry to the business world, social science is involved everywhere. It also assists in social welfare, theory formulation, methodology development, social planning, forecast, and control. Many of the world’s most pressing issues, such as cyber-security, the discovery ity of the cause of new diseases, and the development of new defence strategies for the challenges that are faced by the countries are all being tackled by social scientists.In order to deal with the day-to-day problems that they face, various nations enlist the assistance of social researchers. In the field of medicine, social scientists collaborate with a variety of organizations. Studying the environmental conditions is just as important as studying the cause and pathogen responsible for any new disease while m trying to figure out what’s causing it. In the business world, particularly in the aviation industry, social science is in high demand. They assist the companies in better understanding their clients by providing data on travel patterns, service usage, and so on. By providing useful insights into )A customer behaviour, social science research can assist industries in gaining customer satisfaction.This can lead to an increased company growth and higher earningsof the firms. Businesses are often curious to learn more about their clients. A knowledge about your customers allows you to better serve them for a variety of reasons. If the customers’ habits can be predicted, then the products can be designed accordingly. It (c reduces their marketing efforts, and if it is necessary, it can be strategically planned in the required time frame. It not only lowers the overall cost but it also improves profitability. The company’s brand name becomes more well-known in the marketplace. Amity Directorate of Distance & Online Education  4 Research Methods-I Technology can help businesses make more money and earn more profits, but social Notes science research can add a layer of value. ity By offering solutions to social groups and castes, social research facilitates social unity. It identifies the source of such problems and offers a solution for resolving them. It also affects the lives of the people structurally by learning more about their social circumstances. The research results in a positive shift in society. To attain ambitious targets, social behaviour is studied and evaluated. rs In addition to increasing creativity and innovation, social research contributes to societal growth. The new concept leads to societal advancement. Focusing on research improves understanding and thereby gives society more power. Creativity and innovation aid in the development of new hypotheses that helps in the improvement ve of societal behaviour. Accepted hypotheses on motivation, personality, leadership, teamwork and other topics are studied in social science research. Through its new research methodologies, it challenges previously held principles. Social research examines the society and aids in the creation of laws that would benefit the government.It contributes to the smooth operation of society by introducing social order and control. The research looks at past trends and forecasts what will ni happen in the future. Predicting future trends is a difficult task for many organizations, whether they are in business, government, or society. The government should make laws that take future trends into account, and companies can design their approaches in the same way. U Social science research never comes to an end. It aids various subject areas in achieving their goals. It has a significant impact in every field. As a result, without social science research, a society’s growth and development is impossible. 1.1.3 Significance of Social Research ity Source of Knowledge: Social research is a valuable source of knowledge. It opens up new avenues for learning and understanding. When a researcher discovers something new, he or she feels a sense of inner joy and happiness. It informs the researcher about previously unknown facts. It clears the path for ignorance and gives social life a new direction. m Informative research: It provides end users with up-to-date, verified, genuine, and extremely valuable information. Research can benefit both researchers and the general public. It is not only informative. Its conclusions are scientifically based, so the information and results are trustworthy. )A Social unity and cohesion: Social research is the only way to achieve social unity in a difficult area between two groups or castes. Social research reveals the causes of these occurrences and offers a solution to it. As a result, social researchers are crucial in achieving social cohesion and unity in society. Social Planning: Social planning, which is the result of social research, would be developed if someone wants to build and bring social growth and development (c to a society. In this situation, it is critical to ensure that society grows in the right direction. Only by resolving problems will society be able to expand. Resolving social issues: Social research also aids in the resolution of social Amity Directorate of Distance & Online Education  Research Methods-I 5 issues. It is through research that we can identify the causative factors of an existing social problem and receive guidance on how to resolve it. Notes ity Structural Changes: Social research is in charge of bringing about structural changes in social life. As a result of social research, we bring social and cultural change to a social situation. Social Welfare: Due to research, social evils can be eradicated from society. The method of social study, in which social evils can be removed, makes the process rs of social welfare possible. Social Prediction: Social research aids in the development of laws and the study of the relationship between social laws and their influences. Knowing whether or not causative factors exist, as well as their magnitude, aids in the prediction of ve outcomes. Social Control: Social control is required for the smooth operation of society. We use social research to bring social order and control to a society for this reason. Social Development: The primary purpose of social research is to see how a society should grow and evolve in order to improve living standards. ni New Techniques: New approaches are introduced and old ones are improved through social research. It also alters existing research tools. It provides us with tools for learning new ways to conduct research. U ity m )A (c Amity Directorate of Distance & Online Education  6 Research Methods-I Unit-1.2: Conceptualization and Formulation of Notes Hypothesis ity 1.2.1 Conceptualization of Hypothesis Meaning of Hypothesis A hypothesis is a prediction of what will be discovered at the conclusion of a rs research project, and it is usually centered on the link between two variables explored in the research. It is usually based on both theoretical ideas of how things work and scientific evidence that already exists. A hypothesis in social science might take two forms. It can predict that no ve relationship exists between two variables, which is known as a null hypothesis. It can also forecast whether or not there is a relationship between variables, which is referred to as an alternative hypothesis. In either scenario, the independent variable is the variable that is thought to affect or not impact the outcome, and the dependent variable is the variable that is thought to be affected or not impacted. ni Researchers want to know if their theory (or hypotheses, if they have more than one) will turn out to be correct. They do it occasionally and don’t do it other times. In either case, the investigation is regarded effective if it can be determined if a hypothesis U is true or not. Research Steps in Hypothesis Hypothesis testing is a formal process for utilizing statistics to investigate our ity views about the world. It is most commonly employed by scientists to examine specific predictions derived from theories, which are referred to as hypotheses. In hypothesis testing, there are five key steps: Step 1: Your null and alternate hypotheses should be stated. It’s crucial to restate your initial research hypothesis (the prediction you wish m to examine) as a null (Ho) and alternate (Ha) hypothesis so that you can test it quantitatively. Your initial hypothesis, which predicts a relationship between variables, is usually the alternate hypothesis. )A The null hypothesis predicts that the variables you’re interested in have no relationship. Example: You’re investigating to see if there’s a link between gender and height. You create the premise that men are, on average, taller than women based on your understanding (c of human physiology. To test this hypothesis, rephrase it as follows: Ho: On average, men aren’t taller than women. Amity Directorate of Distance & Online Education  Research Methods-I 7 Ha: On average, men are taller than women. Step 2: Collect information Notes ity It is critical to sample and gather data in a method that is tailored to evaluate your hypothesis for a statistical test to be valid. You can’t make statistical judgments about the population you’re studying if your data aren’t representative. Example: rs To investigate differences in average height between men and women, your sample should include an equal number of men and women, as well as a range of socioeconomic classes and other factors that could influence average height. You should also evaluate your target audience and your scope. Census data, ve which covers data from a number of areas and social groups and is available for many countries throughout the world, could be a suitable data source in this scenario. Step 3: Perform a statistical test. There are a number of statistical tests accessible, but they all compare within- ni group variance (how spread out the data is inside a category) versus between-group variance (how spread out the data is between categories) (how different the categories are from one another). Your statistical test will produce a low p-value if the between-group variance is U large enough that there is little or no overlap between groups. This suggests that the disparities between these groups are unlikely to have occurred by chance. If the within-group variance is great but the between-group variance is low, your statistical test will reflect this with a high p-value. This means that any difference you find across groups is most likely attributable to chance. ity Example: The type of data you collected will determine which statistical test you use. You use a one-tailed t-test to see if men are indeed taller than women, based on the sort of data you collected. This test will provide you with: m an estimate of the average height difference between the two groups. a p-value indicating the probability of seeing this difference if the null hypothesis of no difference is true. )A According to your t-test, men have an average height of 175.4 cm and women have an average height of 161.7 cm, with a genuine difference estimate ranging from 10.2 cm to infinity. 0.002 is the p-value. Step 4: Determine whether or not the null hypothesis is supported. You must decide whether your null hypothesis is supported or disproved based on (c the results of your statistical test. In most circumstances, you’ll base your judgment on the p-value provided by the statistical test. In most circumstances, the cutoff for opposing the null hypothesis will be Amity Directorate of Distance & Online Education  8 Research Methods-I 0.05, which means there’s a less than 5% probability you’d observe these results if the Notes null hypothesis were true. ity Example: You find that the p-value of 0.002 is less than your cut-off of 0.05 in your analysis of the difference in average height between men and women, thus you reject your null hypothesis of no difference. rs Step 5: Make a presentation of your findings. The outcomes of hypothesis testing will be provided in your research paper’s results and discussion sections. ve In the findings section, you should include a quick overview of the data as well as a summary of the statistical test results (for example, the estimated difference between group means and associated p-value). You might discuss whether your initial theory was supported or disproved during the discussion. The null hypothesis is refuted or accepted in the formal language of hypothesis ni testing. This is something you’ll almost certainly be asked to undertake in your statistics assignments. Conceptualization of Hypotheses In this section, we will look at the steps involved in defining a research issue and U developing a research proposal. The research proposal is a document that enables the researcher to accomplish three goals. First, it offers a systematic way for the researcher to arrange his or her thoughts, using a framework that takes the researcher’s ideas from conception to ity the practicalities of conducting the research that will provide an investigation of, and, if all goes well, answers to the initial questions asked. Second, it serves as a public declaration of the researcher’s intentions and practices.This encourages co-workers and managers to review the plan and provide constructive feedback on the research design. This is often used as the basis for obtaining required permits, such as clearances for human ethics or animal experiments, or enables to conduct research m under legislation such as national parks or fisheries acts.Finally, the proposal lays the groundwork for obtaining funding. Grant committees must be persuaded that not only is the research worthwhile and will benefit society or advance knowledge, but also that the proposed work is feasible and that the researcher is the right person to solve the problem. )A We should explore the basic principles of designing a research project by looking at the content of a proposal. So, what should a research proposal include? Consider how we could bring a student to a research proposal as a starting point. In the course that is taught, students in their third year are given the chance to conduct a mini- research project.Within the first few weeks, each student is required to write a research proposal.The headers of that proposal serve as a helpful template for all proposals: (c project title, literature review, issue definition, goals, objectives, procedures, timing, special features, and references.This sequence takes the student’s ideas from an initial concept to a declaration of the issue after an external review of what has already Amity Directorate of Distance & Online Education  Research Methods-I 9 been done. The latter statement should give a quick overview of the problem and how the student thinks it can be solved, as well as it also shows why the problem is worth Notes ity investigating.The proposal then refines the strategy, going from a broad statement of outcome – a one-sentence goal – to the steps that must be taken to achieve that goal – the objectives. The proposal then specifies the methods to be used to collect, synthesize, and interpret the information needed to meet the objectives, as well as the chronological structure in which these approaches will be used.The special features header encourages a student to think about any requirements or restrictions that rs could limit the researcher’s ability to finish the project on time. The references section contains a list of published materials that back up the student’s proposal. The important thing to remember about this structure is that it does not lock down a research project – many research projects change as they are carried out, but it does so in a way that organizes thought and planning. ve Gardiner and Hughes created an example of a research proposal format that was used in student training (2000). Although the headings or the focus on particular content may differ based on the conditions of the proposal and the directions under which we are writing them, the format meets the standard conditions attached at whatever level we are writing research proposals.For instance, a proposal for a human ethics project is ni likely to place a greater emphasis on the methods, particularly in terms of their effect on the research subjects. On the other hand, a proposal for innovative research looking for funding from a source that supports innovative research may need to focus more on the ideas and potential effects of the outcomes than the techniques. U One of Australia’s most important public research funders is the Australian Research Council (ARC). Their applications are governed by a set of guidelines that demand that researchers write proposals that meet very specific criteria. Consider the following headings from their application section E, the research description section: ity E1. ProjectTitle E2. Background and Aims E3. Significance and Innovation E4. Approach and Methodology E5. National Benefit m E6. Communication of Results E7. Role of Personnel E8. References )A We are already familiar with some of these, and they mirror our standards for undergraduate students. What is the proposed research’s goal and background? What are the procedures that have been proposed? In the case of the ARC, it’s also crucial to think about who will conduct the research; this is largely a methodological question, in that the ARC must be persuaded that the researchers have the necessary skills, knowledge and experience to successfully complete their study.Furthermore, the ARC (c has a nationwide research agenda and is interested in nationwide advantages; other Amity Directorate of Distance & Online Education  10 Research Methods-I organizations may have regional or organizational concerns, and you may be needed Notes to recognize these. In any case, these are statements that help to explain the proposed ity research’s relevance and significance. In this section, we will delve a little deeper into these concepts. This enables us to think about the essence of research and, while writing a research proposal may appear to be merely a technical component of writing, the procedure forces us to think more cautiously about what research is and how we relate to it as a member within a group of rs scholars (Glassick, Huber, and Maerof 1997) In practice, we must consider the connections between the proposal title and the research subject, as well as the connections between the research questions and the reasoning. Is the methodology and strategy the same or distinct? Is there any link ve between them? What is the significance of context, and what is the importance and intent of prior knowledge, such as a literature review?What are the sources that will be used to conduct the proposed research? How will the researcher describe these and make important decisions about their suitability? What factors impact his or her decision-making? How do we disintegrate the proposed topic and issue within the research question ni to create an achievable research project once the goals, ethnicities, strategies, methodology, and sources have been recognized and justified? And do we have any preconceived notions about the outcome? This latter issue is becoming extremely relevant in a time when research is becoming increasingly commercialized and external U bodies are frequently seeking and financing- outcomes instead of the research process itself. There is a place for identifying anticipated main findings or conclusions, but how practical is it to do so early in the research process? Is such consideration a risk or a benefit to the research process? This section will not provide answers to all of these questions, but it will provide a problem-focused foundation (Chappell 2001) on which ity they can be answered. 1.2.2 Formulation of Hypothesis Types of Hypothesis used for formulating a Research Problem Research Hypothesis: Simple Research Hypothesis and Complex Research m Hypothesis are two types of research hypotheses. The association between a single independent variable and a single dependent variable is predicted by a simple research hypothesis. The relationship between two or more independent variables and two or more dependent variables is predicted by a complex hypothesis. For proper evaluation, )A a research hypothesis must be written in a testable form and should show a relationship between variables in clear, succinct, and intelligible language. There are two types of research hypotheses: directional and non-directional. 1. Directional Hypotheses: Directional hypotheses are typically developed from theory. They could signal that the researcher is emotionally invested in a specific outcome. They define the expected direction of the link between variables, implying (c that the researcher expects not only the existence but also the nature of the link. 2. Non-directional Hypotheses: When there is little or no theory, or when previous studies’ conclusions are conflicting, non-directional hypotheses are used. They could convey impartiality. Do not specify the relationship’s direction. Amity Directorate of Distance & Online Education  Research Methods-I 11 Associative and causal Hypotheses: Notes ity 1. Associative Hypotheses: Propose relationships between variables, so that when one changes, the other changes as well. Do not state the cause and effect of the problem. 2. Casual Hypotheses: Propose a cause and effect interaction between two or more variables in a causal hypothesis. The dependent variable is affected by manipulating the independent variable. The effect of the independent variable is examined by rs measuring the dependent variable. Statistical Hypothesis: The research hypothesis must be transformed into a statistical hypothesis to see if the data supports or refutes it. It is presented in a statistical format. It is a statement regarding one or more parameters that are measures ve of the population under investigation in the context of inferential statistics. Inferential statistics is a type of statistics that is used to make inferences about population values. 1. Null Hypotheses: When the researcher feels there is no association between two variables or when there is insufficient theoretical or empirical knowledge to state a research hypothesis, the null hypothesis is used. The null hypothesis is a hypothesis ni that has been proposed but not proven, either because it is thought to be true or because it is to be used as a basis for argument. If the wrong decision is made, it can have serious consequences. Ho or Hn is the designation. Null hypotheses can be: Simple or complicated U Associative or causal. 2. Alternative Hypotheses: The alternative hypothesis is a statement of what a hypothesis test is designed to prove. H1 or Ha is the designation. It’s the polar opposite of the Null Hypothesis. It can only be reached if Ha is turned down. Frequently, the term “alternative” refers to the researcher’s chosen conclusion. ity The null hypothesis is given considerable attention. This is because the null hypothesis is concerned with the statement being tested, but the alternative hypothesis is concerned with the statement that will be accepted if the null hypothesis is rejected. Once the test has been completed, the final conclusion is always expressed in terms of the null hypothesis. m Formulating a Research Problem A researcher’s main initial activity should be to construct and write a research proposal. It’s the procedure for formulating a concise and direct statement of the )A research issue. The issue is frequently stated as the objective of the researcher. It can range from looking for answers to a simple question to gaining a thorough understanding of complex analytical problems. Instances of the former can be found in survey-type research, the what-is-where or who-does-what type of questions frequently asked in the initial stages of a study or in the initial phases of a new field of research, to provide base data and a sense of the patterns of available information within the study (Neuman 2003).Outside-the-academy research often, but not always, (c comes to a halt at this point (for example, market research or data collection associated with local government planning or legislative requirements [Zikmund 2003]). Academic research, on the other hand, aims to gain a better knowledge of the world whether it’s about how an ecosystem works or what the driving factors and impacts were during a Amity Directorate of Distance & Online Education  12 Research Methods-I period of time (Williams 2000). Such a thorough understanding necessitates the use Notes of closer analytical techniques, and thus the goal of a research project, the research ity issue, necessitates a prior knowledge of the discipline as well as higher-order analytical techniques that can be used (Ashley and Boyd 2006). In any case, all research is inspired by questions that arise from previous work or observations of the world, and it identifies a problem that needs to be investigated. As a result, certain fundamental properties must be present in the research issue. It has to: rs (1) Articulate a genuine and justifiable problem based on prior research experience, and thus worth doing; (2) Directly link to a body of significant prior knowledge within the given discipline; (3) Be prepared with a clear-cut knowledge of the relevant analytical tools; and ve (4) Contribute to knowledgeand/or theory in a potentially original way. The level of analysis that is expected is determined by identifying the actual and justifiable problem as well as the appropriate analytical tools. In the expanding world of research significance, academic research is viewed as both a scholarly undertaking ni and a practical activity with the potential to produce significant industrial, educational, economic, or environmental outcomes.The recognition of a feasible subject and a central question around which the research will develop is, however, a crucial first step. As a result, the research proposal must be based on a question to be answered, a problem to be solved, or an issue to be resolved. U The significance of the researcher evaluating on and knowing the concept of scholarship, particularly within his or her own discipline, is a theme that keeps on returning while thinking about reflections on research. With this knowledge, the researcher will have more control over his or her research design and will have a better chance of writing proposals that result in projects being financed and running. ity Academia can provide examples of the types of understanding needed (Williams 2000). For instance, scientific research is frequently understood in simple terms at a popular level – it necessitates highly educated, often lab-coated experts taking measurements and observations of indisputable objects. The sophistication of measurement and observation, on the other hand, is not a problem for a trained and experienced scientist. Because such study often necessitates numerical measurements of some kind of m variable, the mathematics of variability within a system, as well as the mathematics of measurement and analysis of complex data sets in which different variables may interact, must be thoroughly understood; it is often that interaction that gives the real data on a system under investigation, so a scientist working in measurement-based )A science needs a comprehensive toolkit and a thorough understanding of the underlying principles in order to make what may appear to be straightforward findings from the outside (Jones et al. 2000).Under such circumstances, the scientist generally needs access to instruments for measuring the variable or variables, and thus must have a solid knowledge of the technical aspects of his or her science, as well as a thorough knowledge of the historical of the development of that science.Furthermore, that scientist must comprehend how to use the instruments and methods to produce (c as many replicate measurements as possible or required under the accurate and constrained circumstances relevant to his or her field, in order to test for statistical significance. As a result, the scientist is forced to consider appropriate research design Amity Directorate of Distance & Online Education  Research Methods-I 13 –we’re going back to some of our previous points about how important it is to define approach and methodology within the research proposal. Notes ity Scientific investigation can be divided into two categories: (1) those in which data on a main variable is collected on a specifically specified population that has not been exposed to any experimental treatment; and (2) those in which a particular experimental treatment is administered in a regulated way to people in a defined population and data is gathered in response to that treatment.Prior to beginning research, a scientist must rs have the necessary preparation, expertise, and, most significantly, active consideration of the issue at hand as well as a thorough understanding of the discipline. Errors in Hypotheses In the context of hypothesis testing, there are two categories of errors that people ve make. Type-I and Type-II errors are the two types of errors. When we make a type-I error, we may reject the null hypothesis even though it is correct. When we accept the Null Hypothesis when it is false, we make a Type-II error. To put it another way, Type-I error refers to the rejection of a hypothesis that should have been accepted, and Type- II error refers to the acceptance of a hypothesis that should have been rejected. Type-I ni error is denoted by alpha, also known as the test’s level of significance, while Type-II error is denoted by beta, also known as the test’s level of significance. The chance of Type-I error is usually calculated ahead of time and is referred to as the significance level of testing the hypothesis. If the Type-I error is set to 5%, that U suggests that we will reject the null hypothesis around 5 times out of 100 times. Type-I errors can be controlled by addressing them at a lower level. For example, if we set it to 1%, we can argue that the maximum probability of making a Type-I error is merely 0.01. ity When we try to reduce Type-I error with a fixed sample size, however, the m likelihood of committing Type-II error increases. It is impossible to reduce both sorts of errors at the same time. There is a trade-off between two types of errors, which means that we can only reduce the likelihood of making one type of error if we are prepared to increase the likelihood of making the other sort of error. In order to test a hypothesis effectively, one must set a very high threshold for Type-I error. As a result, while testing )A hypotheses, every effort must be made to achieve an appropriate balance between Type-I and Type-II errors. Moving towards an Appropriate Research Design It is crucial to understand the research design once a research issue has been identified. Design reflects the researcher’s choice of a theoretical model or viewpoint (c from which he or she could approach the proposed research, as well as, perhaps more generally understood, deciding a strategy, and thus the experimental design, for gathering data considered acceptable to solve the issues.There are numerous restrictions on the feasibility or practicability of a research project, which derive not Amity Directorate of Distance & Online Education  14 Research Methods-I only from the legitimacy of the research issue, but also from many pragmatic aspects Notes of the proposed research. Disciplinary restrictions can influence the research process, ity allowing one design to be distinguished from another as suitable for different topics; this frequently reflects the discipline’s tradition (James 1972), in which many styles of concepts or interpretations have become prevalent. An instance can be discovered in the world of social sciences. It doesn’t take much reading in the social sciences to realize that there are several different ways rs to conduct research: Terms like qualitative, interpretive, multicultural, postcolonial, analytical, quantitative, participatory, action-oriented, multi-culturally situated, proof or source based, action learning, etc. will be encountered by the reader (Denzin and Lincoln 1994; Corn- wall and Jewkes 1995; Hay 2000; Aranda and Street 2001; Neuman 2003). So, what does this mean? Is it true that social scientists have no idea ve what they’re doing? Certainly not. What it means is that social science research is extremely complex, and that methods, research issues, and topics are all intertwined. The reasons for which social science research is used are as varied as the purposes for which it is used. What is the implication?That the social scientist must be fully conscious of the scope of his or her profession and possess a thorough understanding of its possibilities, problems, approaches, strategies, and methods, among other things ni (Martindale 1988; Fuery and Mansfield 1997). Is this something you’ve learned before? To consider the example, let us first think about the version of social science in which, in places, researchers hold great store in high level statistical sampling, in U which the entire research problem is framed in terms of obtaining sufficiently large and appropriately structured or related samples, as well as in defining the different types of dependent and independent variables that can be measured using now-accepted statistical tests (Dowdy and Wearden 1991; Cresswell 1994). On the other hand, a growing number of social scientists are turning to well-established methodologies that avoid statistical sampling and testing in favor of qualitative data – ideas, thoughts, ity perceptions, beliefs, and so on – that can be collected, documented, and analyzed in depth over time using techniques like interviews (and there are a variety of types of interviewing techniques), reflective practices and case studies(Brenner, Brown and Canter 1985; Bonoma 1985; Berg 1989; Pat- ton 1991; Malterud 1993; Silverman 1993; Porteous 1996; Greenwood and Levin 1998; Murphy et al. 1998; Baskerville 1999; Shaw 1999).The introduction and approval of this latter set of methods has taken a m long time, and in some schools of thought, a researcher who wants to use them will face opposition because they are considered unregulated and therefore ineffective methodology. The argument is that the approach being suggested may help or affect the )A research’s development. There may be limitations in methods where financing is added to the project. For example, an archaeological site survey conducted for academic purposes will vary significantly from one conducted as part of a heritage impact assessment (Pearson and Sullivan 1995; Boyd et al. 1996). As a result, articulating the methodology will serve as a test of the research issue. It will also aid in the further development of the idea of the research issue by acting as a reality check. (c In certain cases, methodology is discussed in very simplistic or general terms, with superficial comparisons made between the criteria of research in, for instance, the humanities and the sciences, with particular attention paid to the discrepancies Amity Directorate of Distance & Online Education  Research Methods-I 15 and correlations between qualitative and quantitative research. The apparent disparities between qualitative and quantitative research are extremely easy to be Notes ity beguiled by.On the one hand, qualitative researchmay be defined by being owned as much by the subject of the research as by the researcher, such that the relationship between observer and observed becomes a an important concern, and the research may be gendered, predominantly oriented toward social action, capable of varying interpretations, concerned with how experience is formed and how meaning is developed rather than derived, and value laden rather than value free (Maykut and rs Morehouse 1994). Quantitative analysis, on the other hand, emphasizes on the external evaluation and apparent indisputable discovery of relationships between one thing and another in a population, and thus its design may be informative or observational creating correlations between variables or causality, respectively. A sampling strategy is common in qualitative research, in which samples of various subjects is needed. ve Regardless of these very different presenting characterizations, the aim of research is to ask important questions about how the world functions, identify reasonable methods for collecting relevant data to answer these questions, apply sound and approved methods to interrogate the data, and come to the most parsimonious conclusion possible, given the current state of knowledge, questions asked and ni methods applied. The sciences and humanities are different in this regard: basic questions may vary because disciplines within these large fields discuss various aspects of the environment, and approaches may differ due to both the types of questions and the types of data available.The conceptual similarities, on the other hand, U may be strikingly evident, and the two broad approaches may be well aligned where each offers a relevant and acceptable solution to a research issue. With such consideration of possible research design and methodology, it’s worth returning to the theme of identifying the research issue, and reiterating the critical point that the researcher must be completely knowledgeable about the discipline in which ity he or she is researching.This necessitates an understanding of the discipline’s culture, which often operates within the institution where the researcher is studying, as well as the methodologies that are permitted within that culture (Geertz 1973, 2000). Such standards impose a heavy amount of responsibility on the researcher who is attempting to define a new research issue, as well as the obligation of being experienced in the discipline,as well as being mindful of his or her own level of expertise and experience m in the field. A student or early-career researcher, for example, might feel compelled to criticize the discipline. This can be very simple, particularly if you’re starting from a place of relative ignorance or inexperience. Almost every researcher has a story about an early career endeavor at debunking )A the existing beliefs of their discipline, or at the very least trying to prove that the discipline has fundamental methodological or logical flaws. In some respects, this is a typical step for a novice entering a career that can best be described as a questioning profession. The same researchers would almost certainly agree that their efforts fell on deaf ears, were restricted by lack of experience, or, worst of all,resulted in professional difficulties. We’ve all heard stories of young researchers going up against the (c establishment and losing.Those who thrive would also clarify that as their knowledge grew, they gained a better understanding of their discipline and were able to work within methodology’s complexities – after all, measuring and documenting this complicated, diverse, and multifarious environment with sophisticated instruments requires one to Amity Directorate of Distance & Online Education  16 Research Methods-I simplify the information or generalize the tendencies of most analytical techniques. Notes ity The next step is to design the research program once the researcher is operating within the methodological tradition of his or her discipline and institution (Leedy 1993; Cresswell 1994). This is done on many levels, but it will begin with a wide scope. It will eventually be articulated in terms of very precise details- the number of samples to be obtained, the exact chemical analyses to be performed, the sampling method to ensure a balanced social distribution of respondents, the duration of days questionnaires rs will be distributed, and so on. Many handbooks are available to help with this level of writing. It’s all too simple for a new researcher to get caught up in the day-to-day methods.After all, it is what we are trained to do in terms of function, and it can be easily managed, sometimes being a routine or process-driven activity; it can also be implemented by following a standard set of procedures, which the researcher can ve become very proficient at following. However, if this occurs, the analysis has a chance of being completed because the methods allow it. Because we can conduct chemical assays for specific elements, it doesn’t mean that these elements are important to the question being asked or that measuring them will offer valuable information; it can, but so would measuring something else. The argument is that the design must be based on the essence and importance of the problems that have to be tackled, even if it is limited by procedure. ni As a result of such possible risks, any research design would need to formulate a justification for the project. A hypothesis will be examined, and a thesis will be U developed or interrogated, if the topic is properly considered. Hypothesis-building has been implemented in some disciplines, with, for instance, in some fields, such formal statements are less important, such as the null hypothesis – the theory that needs to be proven false – while in others, such formal statements are less important. Formal statements are required by the technique in research that can be answered using statistical analyses, statements of what is to be proven false or what levels of ity confidence of correlations between data must be obtained for anything to be considered as accepted. The research problem will have been defined in relation to other previous, and generally, published work in the field, and its scope and shortcomings within the discipline will have been clearly defined. As an aside, the significance of previously published data is that it has been peer m reviewed and therefore can be used as a sound and approved foundation for further research. The researcher, on the other hand, should be able to read the prior literature critically and discerningly, as well as improve critical thinking for published work. With this in mind, when developing a research proposal, think about identifying what needs to be measured, how the observation should be performed, and the format in which )A collected data should be presented, how the data can be questioned, and so on. Returning to previous work is a big part of it. Similar questions have almost certainly been raised before, maybe in a different context, and appropriate methods have been developed. Many researchers are unlikely to come up with anything entirely new more than once in their careers, and the great majority would draw on existing questions and approaches. Indeed, some consistency in the questions being asked and some (c continuity in methodological approach are critical for the development of a discipline; this enables researchers to contribute to a much broader, internally cohesive, and organized understanding of the world as a community than would be possible for a person. Amity Directorate of Distance & Online Education  Research Methods-I 17 To summarize, a research issue is often placed within the framework of the researcher’s discipline and institution. The individual researcher’s work should be Notes ity regarded a contribution to an increasing body of knowledge and understanding of the world as a small portion of a massive, now global, scholarly project.Although a small number of researchers will come up with a completely new concept or method, potentially identifying new intellectual paths, the vast majority of researchers will be pursuing a pre-determined course. As a result, it is critical that the research issue be formulated in the context of a review of current thinking on the issue,a study of the rs literature generally used to make this evaluation, which is often usefully moderated by practical experience and prior research. This enables the proposal to be placed in the most appropriate theoretical and practical sense. The plan must then provide a realistic ground for information-based research on ve these foundations.This holds true for both theoretical and applied research; practical findings may be easier to comprehend as data, however, one must not forget that a theorist’s conceptual analyses are built on component pieces, theoretical building blocks, claims, and observation (Collins 1998).If the necessary information has been identified, the plan should focus on strategies for obtaining accurate information and sufficient quantities of data; data- or information-gathering methods, whether they be ni observational techniques, classification methods, statistics, or experimental design, must be carefully described.Finally, data collection alone is not enough to establish a deep understanding, so the data must be interrogated. As a result, the plan must consider the tools that would be used to interpret the information or data collected; U this is true for researchers who use statistical packages such as SPSS to identify associations between measurement, as well as those who use other methods, for example, N6, the updated name for the beautifully named NUD*IST software. Anticipating Outcomes, Writing Your Results ity If all goes according to plan, the researcher should expect all findings to be meticulously documented and analyzed, as well as some kind of response to the original query (and there will always be an answer). Then it’ll be time to write up your conclusions, analyze their consequences, and draw specific inferences; in other words, to provide an answer to your original query. The plan should understand how this would be accomplished, with a focus on the reporting format. m Researchers, at least in non-commercial enterprises like universities and government research agencies, owe a duty to the people, who, after all, pay for the research with their taxes. We must consider issues such as how and when the work will be released, as well as who will be your target audience. These issues must be )A answered in the research proposal, and the responses, like those for methodology, can have an impact on the research design.If a researcher, for example, has a clear public- good ethos and believes that his or her primary duty is to deliver socially beneficial and possibly activist research results, that research is likely to want to be published in both academic and mainstream realms. Can the analyses accommodate the variations in writing and publishing styles expected by these two domains (Boyd and Taffs 2004; (c Boyd and Laird 2006)? If so, how can you go about doing it? What is your publishing plan going to be? When the analysis is finished, for example, or when the study is in progress? Amity Directorate of Distance & Online Education  18 Research Methods-I It’s worth noting, as an aside, that awaiting publication is predicated on the bold Notes presumption that everything goes according to plan. In fact, this is a major assumption. ity Also the most meticulously planned study design is subject to change, and change will occur just as soon as the first data is gathered. A genuinely enquiring researcher’s open mind would be sensitive to new ideas or questions, as well as to concerns that the original question may not be true or that the suggested approach may not be exact. This is known as grounded research in some fields, and all academic research is focused on the researcher’s own experience.. While it may be easy to disregard rs demands for a change or shift in design as the research progresses, and it may be difficult to depart from predetermined systems where research follows existing guidelines, this may result in a substandard outcome or, worse, insignificant or inaccurate answers. ve The research proposal can be interpreted as a solid framework for the proposed research, but it is most frequently used to initiate the process and give form to the research’s beginning. It can be difficult for a novice researcher to alter the direction of a research project once it has begun, and some even believe that departing from the proposal is a kind of admission of failure. It is, however, the polar opposite, and it gets simpler with practice. The proposal is simply an instinctive response, albeit one that is ni as strong and reasonable as possible, that establishes the project’s parameters. Let’s get back to the topic of writing up. The researcher is once again required to understand the cultural expectations within his or her profession or organization by addressing writing and reporting in the proposal (Chanock 2007; Ellis,Taylor and U Drury 2007). For example, writing in the sciences, health, or medical fields is largely a reportage method (Lindsay 1984; Alley 1996). That is, data has been collected, samples have been analyzed, analyses have been performed, and information has been processed to address the original query. The scientist’s job now is to simply announce the findings of the study. ity Writing, on the other hand, is an empirical method used very intentionally to interrogate facts and concepts in the humanities and parts of the social sciences. Many scholarly history study books or cultural process studies, for example, employ language to explore the topic; social philosophers, historians, and humanities scholars often write comprehensive and imaginative prose in their quest for significance within their m scholarly subjects. This can apply to playing with language, using metaphors and analogies to comprehend intellectually complex concepts, or even changing words and grammar to force meaning previously not conceived from the text, particularly in the new humanities )A and other areas generally equating to postmodern scholarship. These methods may appear confusing, particularly to non-humanities academics. Of course, they can backfire, so they require professional and experienced execution, just as a skilled laboratory-based scientist’s analyses would represent several years of preparation and understanding of what can be an equally confusing intellectual endeavor to the outsider. We return to the significance of the proposal once more: it includes both a practical requirement for the researcher to report the writing and reporting that is needed, as (c well as an analytical requirement for the researcher to fully comprehend the disciplinary cultural role of writing and reporting. Amity Directorate of Distance & Online Education  Research Methods-I 19 Whatever method of writing and reporting is used, the researcher must do justice to the extensive work that has been planned, so time and effort must be set aside Notes ity for proper recording, the creation of a cogent case, and clear reporting of data and scholarly outcomes. Much of this must be achieved – does this sound familiar? –within the framework of the discipline, which would necessitate the researcher’s knowledge of the publishing community. In most sciences, for example, this entails publishing relatively brief accounts in scientific journals in what is known as a paper – a short, sometimes three- to five-thousand-word, self-contained account of the work- in a rs scholarly journal. The journal will be published by a respectable academic organization or publishing house, will be supervised by an editor and editorial staff, and will adhere to strict format, content, and other guidelines. Relevantly, peer review, also known as refereeing, will be conducted prior to ve publication. Within such a discipline, the research proposal should represent the expectation of publication in a peer-reviewed and, increasingly, international journal. This does not prohibit publication in other venues, such as business journals or newsletters, or more widely distributed newspapers, where there is a compelling case for data dissemination to the population or industry. However, in the case of a scholar, such a strategy should be addressed in the proposal, highlighting the research’s ni particular needs, such as its business or social agenda emphasis. The related academic community may adopt a strong culture of publication through conference proceedings in some disciplines, particularly the newer ones – academic U nursing or tourism studies, for example – or disciplines with a sense of urgency, such as some areas of medical science, business, or political studies. Conference publication is seen in all fields, but in many, it is regarded as a step after the peer review process. This is due to the role of conferences within specific disciplines:they’re used for preliminary presentations and discussions of new data or proposals in some cases, and they’re the primary location for presenting final results in others. Yet other fields, such ity as the historical disciplines and some social sciences, publish by monograph; that is, the complete work in a single, mostly single-authored, text, either a stand- alone volume or one of a series of monographs. Of course, there are different levels of publishing outlets; all university departments require their students to present at in-house conferences, often not for publication m but to help them organize their research inputs and results and begin to learn about public speaking (Roberts 2004). Graduate research is required to be presented in an academic style appropriate to the discipline in order to promote effective assessment and widespread dissemination. This, too, necessitates a thorough understanding of the researcher’s discipline’s culture and practice.Writing style differs between and within )A disciplines, from the form of language to the structure of the written work, and is also expressly recommended by the publishers, so the researcher must be both fully aware of the norms of the discipline and receptive to diversity. There are several different types of writing, each one suitable for its own context, and it is the researcher’s job to strike the right balance between them. For example, under what circumstances should a historian use which of the three modes of historical (c writing (narration, description, and analysis)? How does the researcher settle on the most suitable structure for his or her writing – chronological, thematic, or a combination Amity Directorate of Distance & Online Education  20 Research Methods-I of both? – or do you depend on appropriate and specific illustration? And there’s that Notes old chestnut about... what style is suitable? ity To help a researcher answer these questions, as well as many others, there is a substantial body of literature, both general scholarly and discipline-specific, that provides writing guidelines, guiding the researcher through the process of planning, drafting, reviewing, finalizing, and submitting a manuscript for publication in a way that will enable his or her peers to accept the work. It is required of the researcher to be rs completely acquainted with the body of literature, as well as to be able to demonstrate an understanding of the demands of writing on the research design in the sense of considering the research proposal. ve ni U ity m )A (c Amity Directorate of Distance & Online Education  Research Methods-I 21 Unit-1.3: Scientific Study of Social Phenomena Notes ity 1.3.1 Scientific Study of Social Phenomenon Science and Scientific Research You’ll probably get really different answers to this seemingly harmless question depending on who you ask. Some people may say that they regularly conduct research rs on various online websites in order to find the best place to purchase the products or services they need. On matters of public concern, such as upcoming elections or government-funded programs, television news channels are said to perform research in the form of viewer surveys. Undergraduate students use the Internet to gather ve knowledge for assignments or term papers they are working on. Graduate students working on research projects for professors might think of research as gathering or analyzing data for their project. Businesses and consultants investigate various options for resolving operational issues such as a supply chain bottleneck or identifying customer purchasing trends.None of the above, however, can be called “scientific research” because it (1) adds to the body of knowledge and (2) meets the scientific Science ni method. This chapter delves into the definitions of these words. What exactly is science? Some people associate science with tough high school U or college courses like physics, chemistry, and biology that are only available to the brightest students. Others see research as a craft performed by white-coated scientists in laboratories with advanced equipment. The term “science” is derived from the Latin word scientia, which means “knowledge.” Science is a systematic and structured body of knowledge gained by “the scientific method” in every field of inquiry. Natural ity science and social science are the two broad branches of science. Natural science is the study of objects or phenomena that exist in nature, such as light, matter, the earth, celestial bodies, or the human body. Physical sciences, earth sciences, life sciences, and others are subcategories of natural sciences. Physics (the science of physical objects), chemistry (the science of matter), and astronomy are examples of physical sciences (the science of celestial objects). Geology, for example, is one of the earth m sciences (the science of the earth). Biology (the study of human bodies) and botany are examples of life sciences (the science of plants).Social science, on the other hand, is the study of individuals or groups of people, such as corporations, societies, or economies, and their individual or collective behaviors. Psychology (the science of human behavior), sociology (the science of social groups), and economics are )A examples of social sciences disciplines (the science of firms, markets, and economies). In many ways, the natural sciences vary from the social sciences. Natural sciences are extremely precise, reliable, deterministic, and unaffected by the individual doing the research. For example, regardless of the time or location of the experiment, or the person performing the experiment, a scientific experiment in physics, such as measuring the speed of sound in a certain medium or the refractive index of water, (c should always produce the same results. If two students performing the same physics experiment come up with two different values for these physical properties, one or both of them is likely to be mistaken. The same cannot be said for the social sciences, which Amity Directorate of Distance & Online Education  22 Research Methods-I have a reputation for being less precise, deterministic, and unambiguous.If you use a Notes hypothetical instrument to calculate an individual’s happiness, you may find that the ity same person is happier or sadder on various days, and even at various times on the same day. The happiness of an individual can vary based on the news they got that day or the events that occurred earlier in the day. Besides that, no single instrument or metric exists that can reliably assess a person’s happiness. As a result, one instrument can determine that a person is “happier,” while a second instrument determines that the same person is “unhappier” at the same time. In other words, the social sciences rs have a high degree of measurement error, and social science policy decisions are fraught with confusion and disagreement. For example, there are few disputes among natural scientists about the speed of light or the speed of the earth around the sun, but there are many among social scientists about how to solve a social problem like reducing global terrorism or rescuing an economy from a slump. Any student studying ve the social sciences must be aware of and comfortable dealing with the higher levels of complexity, confusion, and error that such sciences entail, which simply represents the wide range of possible outcomes.The purpose of sciences can also be categorized. Basic sciences, also known as pure sciences, are those that describe the most fundamental objects and powers, as well as their interactions and the rules that regulate ni them. Physics, mathematics, and biology are some examples. Applied sciences, also known as practical sciences, are fields of study that extend scientific knowledge from the fundamental sciences to a physical setting. Engineering, for example, is an applied science that uses the laws of physics and chemistry to solve practical problems like constructing stronger bridges or developing more fuel-efficient combustion engines, U while medicine is an applied science that uses the laws of biology to treat human illnesses. Human growth necessitates both basic and applied sciences. Applied sciences, however, cannot advance on their own and must depend on fundamental sciences to do so. Of course, because of their practical value, industry and private businesses prefer to concentrate more on applied sciences, while universities research ity both fundamental and applied sciences. Scientific Knowledge Science’s purpose is to develop scientific knowledge. Scientific knowledge is a broad set of laws and hypotheses developed by the scientific method to describe m a phenomenon or behaviour of interest. Theories are systematic interpretations of the underlying phenomenon or behaviour, while laws are observable patterns of phenomena or behaviours. The Newtonian Laws of Motion, for example, in physics, explain what happens when an object is at rest or in motion (Newton’s First Law), how much force is needed to move a stationary object or stop a moving object )A (Newton’s Second Law), and what happens when two objects collide (Newton’s Third Law). The three laws together form the foundation of classical mechanics, which is a theory of moving objects. Similarly, optics explains the properties of light and how it behaves in various media, while electromagnetic theory explains the properties of electricity and how it is produced, quantum mechanics explains the properties of subatomic particles, and thermodynamics explains energy and mechanical function. (c Separate chapters dedicated to each of these hypotheses are likely to be included in an introductory college-level physics text book. In the social sciences, there are ideas that are similar.For example, in psychology, cognitive dissonance theory explains how people respond when their observations of an event differ from what they expected of Amity Directorate of Distance & Online Education  Research Methods-I 23 that event, general deterrence theory explains why some people engage in violent or unethical behaviors, such as illegally downloading music or pirating software, and the Notes ity theory of planned behavior explains how people make conscious reasoned decisions. Scientific research aims to discover laws and postulate theories that can be used to describe natural or social phenomena, or to construct scientific knowledge. It is critical to recognize that this information might be incomplete or even incorrect.. There may not always be a single universal truth, but rather a balance of “many truths.” We must recognize that the hypotheses that underpin scientific understanding are merely rs interpretations of a specific phenomenon as proposed by a scientist. As a result, there may be good or bad explanations, depending on how well those explanations match fact, and there may also be good or bad hypotheses. Science progresses as we move from bad theories to better theories over time, leads to improved experiments, ve more precise instruments, and more educated analytical thinking. Logic and evidence are used to arrive at scientific rules or hypotheses. Logic (theory) and evidence (observations) are the two, and only two, foundations upon which scientific knowledge is centered. Theories and findings in science are inextricably linked and cannot exist without one another. Theories provide context and significance to what we see, and observations aid in the validation, refinement, or construction of new theories. Any other Scientific Research ni method of gaining knowledge, such as faith or authority, is not considered science. Since science is based on two pillars: theories and observations, scientific research U takes place on two levels: theoretical and empirical. The theoretical level is concerned with developing abstract concepts about a natural or social phenomenon, as well as relationships between those concepts (i.e., build “theories”), while the empirical level is concerned with testing theoretical concepts and relationships to see how well they match our observations of reality, with the aim of eventually constructing better theories. ity Over time, a hypothesis becomes more developed (that is, it better suits the observed reality), and science matures. Moving back and forth between theory and observations is a constant in scientific research. Scientific research necessitates the use of both theory and findings. For example, making inferences solely based on findings while ignoring theory is not considered legitimate scientific research. Scientific inquiry can take one of two types, depending on the researcher’s training an