Saladin_AP_10e_Chap01_PPT_Accessible.pptx

Because learning changes everything. ® Chapter 01 Major Themes of Anatomy and Physiology ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY The Unity of Form and Function TENTH EDITION KENNETH S. SALADIN © McGraw Hill LLC...

Because learning changes everything. ® Chapter 01 Major Themes of Anatomy and Physiology ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY The Unity of Form and Function TENTH EDITION KENNETH S. SALADIN © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC.  1.1 The Scope of Anatomy and Physiology Expected Learning Outcomes: Define anatomy and physiology and relate them to each other. Describe several ways of studying human anatomy. Define a few subdisciplines of human physiology. © McGraw Hill, LLC 2  1.1 Introduction Anatomy—study of structure Physiology—study of function Anatomy and physiology are complementary and never entirely separable Physiology provides meaning to anatomy Anatomy is what makes physiology possible © McGraw Hill, LLC 3  1.1a Anatomy—The Study of Form 1 Ways to examine structure of the human body: Inspection—look at appearance Palpation—feeling a structure with the hands Auscultation—listening to sounds produced by body Percussion—tap on the body, feel for resistance, and listen to emitted sound for abnormalities Dissection—cutting and separating human body tissues to reveal tissue relationships; use a cadaver, a dead human body Comparative anatomy—study (for example, dissection) of multiple species to learn about form, function, and evolution Exploratory surgery—opening the living body to see what is wrong; now replaced by medical imaging to view inside without surgery Radiology—branch of medicine specializing in imaging © McGraw Hill, LLC 4  Anatomy—The Study of Form 2 Subdisciplines of anatomy include: Gross anatomy—study of structures that can be seen with the naked eye Histology (microscopic anatomy)—examination of tissues with microscope Histopathology—microscopic examination of tissues for signs of disease Cytology—study of structure and function of cells; fine detail (ultrastructure) may be resolved using an electron microscope © McGraw Hill, LLC 5  1.1b Physiology—The Study of Function Physiology uses the methods of experimental science Subdisciplines of physiology include: Neurophysiology—physiology of nervous system Endocrinology—physiology of hormones Pathophysiology—mechanisms of disease Comparative physiology Study of different species to learn about body functions Basis for much of our understanding of human physiology and the development of new drugs and medical procedures © McGraw Hill, LLC 6  1.2 The Origins of Biomedical Science Expected Learning Outcomes: Give examples of how modern biomedical science emerged from an era of superstition and authoritarianism. Describe the contributions of some key people who helped to bring about this transformation. © McGraw Hill, LLC 7  1.2a The Greek and Roman Legacy 1 Hippocrates Greek physician; “Father of medicine” Established a code of ethics (Hippocratic Oath) Urged physicians to seek natural causes of disease rather than attributing them to acts of the gods and demons Aristotle Believed diseases had supernatural or physical causes Called supernatural causes of disease theologi Called natural causes for disease physiologi This gave rise to the terms physician and physiology Believed complex structures were built from simpler parts © McGraw Hill, LLC 8  Greek and Roman Legacy 2 Metrodora Greek physician and first woman to publish a medical textbook Claudius Galen Physician to Roman gladiators Did animal dissections because use of cadavers was banned Saw science as a method of discovery Teachings were adopted as dogma in Europe in Middle Ages © McGraw Hill, LLC 9  1.2b The Birth of Modern Medicine 1 Maimonides (Moses ben Maimon) Jewish physician who wrote 10 influential medical texts Was physician to Egyptian sultan, Saladin Avicenna (Ibn Sina) from Muslim world “The Galen of Islam” Combined both Galen and Aristotle’s findings with original discoveries Wrote The Canon of Medicine, used in medical schools for 500 years © McGraw Hill, LLC 10  The Evolution of Medical Art a: Wellcome Library, London/CC BY 4.0; b: Suzan Oschmann/Shutterstock Access the text alternative for slide images. Figure 1.1 © McGraw Hill, LLC 11  The Birth of Modern Medicine 2 Beginning of modern Western medicine Andreas Vesalius Catholic Church relaxed restrictions on dissection of cadavers Performed his own dissections rather than having the barber– surgeons dissect Published first atlas of anatomy, De Humani Corporis Fabrica (On the Structure of the Human Body) in 1543 William Harvey Early physiologist—contributions represent the birth of experimental physiology Published book De Motu Cordis (On the Motion of the Heart) in 1628 Realized blood flows out from heart and back to it again Credit also given to Michael Servetus for this © McGraw Hill, LLC 12  The Birth of Modern Medicine 3 Microscopy extended the ability to visualize life at the cellular level Galileo Patented the compound microscope as a by-product of his work with telescopes Tube with lenses at each end: ocular lens (eyepiece) and objective lens (near specimen) Didn’t use it for studying biological material Marcello Malpighi First to use compound microscope to study biological material Observed blood cells, capillaries, and capillary blood flow © McGraw Hill, LLC 13  The Birth of Modern Medicine 4 Robert Hooke Made many improvements to compound microscope Invented specimen stage, illuminator, coarse and fine focus controls His microscopes magnified only 30X First to see and name “cells” Published first comprehensive book of microscopy (Micrographia) in 1665 © McGraw Hill, LLC 14  Hooke’s Compound Microscope a: National Museum of Health and Medicine, Silver Spring, MD; b: Bettmann/Getty Images Access the text alternative for slide images. Figure 1.2 © McGraw Hill, LLC 15  The Birth of Modern Medicine 5 Microscopists (continued) Antony van Leeuwenhoek Invented a simple (single-lens) microscope with great magnification to look at fabrics (200X) Superior magnification compared to Hooke’s microscope due to Leeuwenhoek’s superior lens-making Published his observations of blood, lake water, sperm, bacteria from tooth scrapings, and many other things © McGraw Hill, LLC 16  The Birth of Modern Medicine 6 Beginning of the cell theory Matthias Schleiden and Theodor Schwann Examined wide variety of specimens Concluded that “all organisms were composed of cells” First tenet of cell theory Considered to be perhaps the most important breakthrough in biomedical history All functions of the body are interpreted as effects of cellular activity © McGraw Hill, LLC 17  1.2c Living in a Revolution Modern biomedical science advances: Germ theory of disease Mechanisms of heredity Structure of DNA Advances in medical imaging Disease imaging and treatment Mapping of the human genome © McGraw Hill, LLC 18  1.3 Scientific Method 1 Expected Learning Outcomes: Describe the inductive and hypothetico–deductive methods of obtaining scientific knowledge. Describe some aspects of experimental design that help to ensure objective and reliable results. Explain what is meant by hypothesis, fact, law, and theory in science. © McGraw Hill, LLC 19  1.3 Introduction Scientific method—the process of performing science, including careful observation, logical thinking, and proper analysis of observations and conclusions Science and scientific methods set standards for truth © McGraw Hill, LLC 20  1.3a The Inductive Method Inductive method—process of making numerous observations until one becomes confident in drawing generalizations and predictions Knowledge of anatomy obtained by this method What is proof in science? Reliable observations, repeatedly confirmed Not falsified by any credible observation In science, all truth is tentative Proof beyond a reasonable doubt May abandon yesterday’s truth if tomorrow’s facts disprove it © McGraw Hill, LLC 21  1.3b The Hypothetico–Deductive Method The hypothetico-deductive method Most physiological knowledge gained by this method Investigator formulates a hypothesis—an educated speculation or possible answer to the question Good hypotheses are consistent with what is already known and are testable Falsifiability—if we claim something is scientifically true, we must be able to specify what evidence it would take to prove it wrong © McGraw Hill, LLC 22  1.3c Experimental Design Elements of experimental design: Sample size—number of subjects in a study Controls—control group resembles treatment group but does not receive treatment Psychosomatic effects—effects of subject’s state of mind on her or his physiology; tested by giving placebo to control group Experimenter bias—avoided with double-blind method Neither the subject nor experimenter knows if the subject is part of control or treatment group Statistical testing—use statistical tests to provides statement of probability that treatment was effective © McGraw Hill, LLC 23  1.3d Peer Review Peer review—critical evaluation by other experts in the field Done prior to funding or publication Done by using verification and repeatability of results Ensures honesty, objectivity, and quality in science © McGraw Hill, LLC 24  1.3e Facts, Laws, and Theories Express understanding of nature with facts, laws, and theories Scientific fact Information that can be independently verified Law of nature Generalization about the way matter and energy behave Results from inductive reasoning and repeated observations Written as verbal statement or mathematical formula Theory An explanatory statement or set of statements derived from facts, laws, and confirmed hypotheses Summarizes what we know; suggests directions for further study © McGraw Hill, LLC 25  1.4 Human Origins and Adaptations 1 Expected Learning Outcomes: Explain why evolution is relevant to understand human form and function. Define evolution and natural selection. Describe human characteristics that can be attributed to the tree-dwelling habits of earlier primates. Describe human characteristics that evolved later in connection with upright walking. © McGraw Hill, LLC 26  1.4 Introduction Theory of natural selection—explanation of how species originate and change through time; help understand the human body Charles Darwin—influential biologist who presented first well-supported theory of how evolution works On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection (1859) —‟the book that shook the world” The Descent of Man (1871)—human evolution and relationship to other animals © McGraw Hill, LLC 27  1.4a Evolution, Selection, and Adaptation 1 Evolution Change in genetic composition of population of organisms; Example: development of bacterial resistance to antibiotics Natural selection How evolution works Selection pressures—forces that promote reproductive success of some individuals more than others; example: predators Adaptations—inherited features of anatomy and physiology that evolved in response to pressures and that enable organism to succeed; example: better camouflage © McGraw Hill, LLC 28  1.4b Our Basic Primate Adaptations Some human anatomical and physiological features can be traced back to ancestral primates Early primates were arboreal (tree-dwelling) Mobile shoulders—better movement among branches Opposable thumbs and prehensile hands—grasp branches and manipulate objects Forward-facing eyes with stereoscopic vision—depth perception Color vision—find ripe fruit Large brain—memory allowing efficient food finding © McGraw Hill, LLC 29  Human Adaptations Shared With Other Primates Chimpanzee: Tim Davis/Science Source Figure 1.4 © McGraw Hill, LLC 30  1.4c Walking Upright 1 Bipedalism—standing and walking on two legs Helps spot predators; carry food, tools, infants Adaptation to living on savanna (grassland) as Africa became hotter and drier Skeletal and muscular modifications Changes to family structure © McGraw Hill, LLC 31  Walking Upright 2 Australopithecus was a bipedal primate genus that lived more than 3 million years ago Homo genus appeared 2.5 million years ago Taller, larger brain volume, tool-making Homo erectus appeared 1.8 million years ago Migrated from Africa to parts Asia Homo sapiens originated in Africa 200,000 years ago Evolutionary medicine traces some of our diseases to differences between modern and prehistoric environments © McGraw Hill, LLC 32  1.5 Human Structure Expected Learning Outcomes: List the levels of human structure from the most complex to the simplest. Discuss the value of both reductionistic and holistic viewpoints to understanding human form and function. Discuss the clinical significance of anatomical variation among humans. © McGraw Hill, LLC 33  1.5a The Hierarchy of Complexity 1 Human organization based on successive levels of hierarchy Organism composed of organ systems Organ systems composed of organs Organs composed of tissues Tissues composed of cells Cells composed partly of organelles Organelles composed of molecules Molecules composed of atoms © McGraw Hill, LLC 34  The Body’s Structural Hierarchy Access the text alternative for slide images. Figure 1.5 © McGraw Hill, LLC 35  The Hierarchy of Complexity 1 Hierarchy of human complexity Organism—a single, complete individual Organ system—group of organs with a unique collective function; for example: circulation, respiration, digestion Organ—structure composed of two or more tissue types that work together to carry out a function An organ has defined anatomical boundaries; can have organs withing organs © McGraw Hill, LLC 36  The Hierarchy of Complexity 2 Hierarchy of human complexity (continued) Tissue—similar cells and cell products forming a discrete region of an organ and performs a specific function Cell—smallest unit to carry out all basic functions of life Organelle—structure within a cell that carry out a function Molecule—particle composed of two or more atoms Largest molecules (proteins, fats, DNA) called macromolecules Atom—smallest particle with unique chemical identity © McGraw Hill, LLC 37  The Hierarchy of Complexity 3 Two complementary approaches to studying and understanding human life: Reductionism—theory that large, complex systems can be understood by studying their simpler components Essential to scientific thinking, but some properties cannot be predicted from individual parts Holism—“emergent properties” occur as we ascend the levels of organization; these cannot be predicted from the properties of individual parts alone Humans are more than the sum of their parts © McGraw Hill, LLC 38  1.5b Anatomical Variation No two humans are exactly alike; even identical twins have differences Anatomy books show most common organization of structures Some individuals lack certain muscles Some individuals have an atypical number of vertebrae Some individuals have an atypical number of certain organs (for example, kidneys) Some individuals show situs inversus—left–right reversal of organ placement © McGraw Hill, LLC 39  Variation in Anatomy of the Kidneys and the Major Arteries Near the Heart Access the text alternative for slide images. Figure 1.6 © McGraw Hill, LLC 40  1.6 Human Function Expected Learning Outcomes: State the characteristics that distinguish living organisms from nonliving objects. Explain the importance of physiological variation among persons. Define homeostasis and explain why this concept is central to physiology. © McGraw Hill, LLC 41  1.6 Human Function 2 Expected Learning Outcomes (continued): Define negative feedback, give an example of it, and explain its importance to homeostasis. Define positive feedback and give examples of its beneficial and harmful effects. Define gradient, describe the variety of gradients in human physiology, and identify some forms of matter and energy that flow down gradients. © McGraw Hill, LLC 42  1.6a Characteristics of Life 1 Life is a collection of properties that distinguish living from nonliving things Characteristics of life: Organization—living things exhibit a higher level of organization than nonliving things Cellular composition—living matter is always compartmentalized into one or more cells Metabolism—the sum of internal chemical change Responsiveness (excitability)—ability to sense and react to changes in environment (stimuli) Movement—movement of entire organism or of substances within the organism © McGraw Hill, LLC 43  Characteristics of Life 2 Characteristics of life (continued) Homeostasis—maintaining relatively stable internal conditions Development—change in form or function over time Differentiation—transformation of unspecialized cells into cells with a committed task Growth—increase in size; occurs through chemical change Reproduction—organisms produce copies of themselves; pass genes to offspring Evolution—genetic change from generation to generation; occurs due to mutations (change in DNA structure) Observe evolution in population as a whole; a single organism does not evolve over the course of its life © McGraw Hill, LLC 44  1.6b Physiological Variation Physiology is even more variable than anatomy Variations in sex, age, diet, weight, physical activity, genetics and environment Typical physiological values Reference man: 22 years old, 154 lb, light physical activity, consumes 2,800 kcal/day Reference woman: same as man except 128 lb and 2,000 kcal/day Failure to consider variation can lead to overmedication of elderly or medicating women on the basis of research done on men © McGraw Hill, LLC 45  1.6c Negative Feedback and Homeostasis 1 Homeostasis—the ability to detect change, activate mechanisms that oppose it, and thereby maintain relatively stable internal conditions Claude Bernard (1813 to 78) noted fairly constant internal conditions despite changing external conditions (for example, temperature) Walter Cannon (1871 to 1945) coined the term homeostasis Negative feedback allows for dynamic equilibrium within a limited range around a set point The body senses a change and “negates” or reverses it Loss of homeostatic control causes illness or death © McGraw Hill, LLC 46  Negative Feedback and Homeostasis 2 Homeostasis (continued) Internal conditions fluctuate within a limited range Dynamic equilibrium around a set point Negative feedback—mechanism that keeps a variable close to set point; the body senses a change and reverses it Because feedback mechanisms alter the original changes that triggered them, they are called feedback loops Example: homeostasis in body temperature If too warm, skin blood vessels dilate (vasodilation) and sweating begins (heat-losing mechanism) If too cold, skin blood vessels constrict (vasoconstriction) and shivering begins (heat-gaining mechanism) © McGraw Hill, LLC 47  Negative Feedback in Thermoregulation 1 Access the text alternative for slide images. Figure 1.7a © McGraw Hill, LLC 48  Negative Feedback in Thermoregulation 2 Access the text alternative for slide images. Figure 1.7b © McGraw Hill, LLC 49  Negative Feedback and Homeostasis 3 Homeostasis (continued) Example: homeostasis of blood pressure (baroreflex) Rise from bed, blood drains from head and blood pressure falls in this region Detected by baroreceptors that transmit signals to cardiac center of brainstem Cardiac center transmits signals to heart to increase heart rate, raising blood pressure and restoring homeostasis © McGraw Hill, LLC 50  Negative Feedback and Homeostasis 4 Homeostasis (continued) Baroreflex illustrates the common components of a feedback loop: Receptor—structure that senses change in the body (for example, the baroreceptors above heart that monitor blood pressure) Integrating (control) center—control center that processes the sensory information, “makes a decision,” and directs the response (for example, cardiac center of the brainstem) Effector—cell or organ that carries out the final corrective action to restore homeostasis (for example, the heart) © McGraw Hill, LLC 51  Homeostatic Compensation for a Postural Change in Blood Pressure Access the text alternative for slide images. Figure 1.8 © McGraw Hill, LLC 52  1.6d Positive Feedback and Rapid Change Positive feedback is a self-amplifying cycle Leads to greater change in the same direction, as opposed to the corrective action of negative feedback Normal way of producing rapid changes Examples: childbirth, blood clotting, protein digestion, and generation of nerve signals Can sometimes be dangerous Example: vicious circle of runaway fever © McGraw Hill, LLC 53  Positive Feedback in Childbirth Access the text alternative for slide images. Figure 1.9 © McGraw Hill, LLC 54  1.6e Gradients and Flow Matter and energy tend to flow down gradients Gradient—difference in chemical concentration, charge, temperature, or pressure between two points Blood flows down a pressure gradient, from a place of higher pressure to a place of lower pressure Chemicals flow down a concentration gradient Charged particles flow down a electrical gradient Electrochemical gradient—combination of concentration, electrical gradients Heat flows down a thermal gradient Movement in the opposite direction is up the gradient and requires spending metabolic energy © McGraw Hill, LLC 55  Flow Down Gradients 1 Access the text alternative for slide images. Figure 1.10a © McGraw Hill, LLC 56  Flow Down Gradients 2 Access the text alternative for slide images. Figure 1.10b,c © McGraw Hill, LLC 57  Flow Down Gradients 3 Access the text alternative for slide images. Figure 1.10d,e © McGraw Hill, LLC 58  1.7 The Language of Medicine Expected Learning Outcomes: Explain why modern anatomical terminology is so heavily based on Greek and Latin. Recognize eponyms when you see them. Describe the efforts to achieve an internationally uniform anatomical terminology. Break medical terms down into their basic word elements. State some reasons why the literal meaning of a word may not lend insight into its definition. Relate singular noun forms to their plural and adjectival forms. Discuss why precise spelling is important in anatomy and physiology. © McGraw Hill, LLC 59  1.7a The History of Anatomical Terminology About 90% of our current medical terms come from 1,200 Greek and Latin roots reflecting ancient past The Renaissance brought progress but confusion Same structures named differently in varied countries Some structures named after people (eponyms) In 1895, anatomists established worldwide naming conventions Rejected eponyms; used unique Latin names Terminologia Anatomica (TA) provides standard international anatomical terms Provided Latin names and English equivalents In 1998, approved by anatomists in over 50 countries © McGraw Hill, LLC 60  1.7b Analyzing Medical Terms Anatomical terminology based on word elements such as roots, prefixes, suffixes Scientific terms One root (stem) with core meaning Combining vowels join roots into a word Prefix and/or suffix may modify meaning of root word Acronyms—pronounceable words formed from first letter, or first few letters, of series of words Example: PET scan © McGraw Hill, LLC 61  1.7c Plurals, Adjectives, and Possessive Forms Plural forms of anatomical terms vary Examples: cortex vs cortices, corpus vs corpora Adjective often follows noun it modifies Example: Biceps brachii Adjectival form of a term can appear different than noun form Example: brachium (n.) referring to the arm, vs. brachii (adj.) referring to “of the arm” © McGraw Hill, LLC 62  1.7d Pronunciation Simple pronunciation guides for many terms are given in the text when terms are first introduced Pronunciation guides are also available online through Anatomy & Physiology REVEALED® © McGraw Hill, LLC 63  1.7e The Importance of Spelling Be precise in use and spelling of terms Many terms are spelled similarly but have very different meanings Health-care professions demand precision in order to maintain patient safety © McGraw Hill, LLC 64  1.8 Review of Major Themes Key unifying principles of anatomy and physiology: Unity of form and function—anatomy and physiology complement each other and cannot be divorced from one another Cell theory—all structure and function result from the activity of cells Evolution—the human body is a product of evolution Hierarchy of complexity—human structure can be viewed as a series of levels of complexity Homeostasis—the purpose of most normal physiology is to maintain stable conditions within the body Gradients and flow—matter and energy tend to flow down gradients © McGraw Hill, LLC 65  Medical Imaging 1 Radiography (X-rays) Over half of all medical imaging Penetrate tissues to darken photographic film beneath the body; dense tissue appears white Radiopaque substances can be injected or swallowed to fill hollow structures, for example, blood vessels, intestinal tract Digital subtraction angiography (D S A) is useful for showing blockages and blood flow © McGraw Hill, LLC 66  Radiologic Images of the Head – X-Ray (Radiograph) © U.H.B. Trust/The Image Bank/Getty Images Access the text alternative for slide images. Figure 1.11a © McGraw Hill, LLC 67  Radiologic Images of the Head – Digital Subtraction Angiogram (DSA) © pang_oasis/Shutterstock Access the text alternative for slide images. Figure 1.11b © McGraw Hill, LLC 68  Medical Imaging 2 Computed tomography (CT scan) Formerly called a C A T scan Low-intensity X-rays and computer analysis Slice-type image Increased sharpness of image Magnetic resonance imaging (M R I) Superior quality to CT scan and no X-ray exposure Best for soft tissue Functional M R I (f M R I) shows real time changes in the brain © McGraw Hill, LLC 69  Radiologic Images of the Head – Computed Tomographic (CT) Scan © Miriam Maslo/Science Source Access the text alternative for slide images. Figure 1.11c © McGraw Hill, LLC 70  Radiologic Images of the Head – Magnetic Resonance Image (M R I) © UHB Trust/Getty Images Access the text alternative for slide images. Figure 1.11d © McGraw Hill, LLC 71  Medical Imaging 3 Positron emission tomography (P E T) Assesses metabolic state of tissue Inject radioactively labeled glucose Image color shows tissues using the most glucose at that moment Damaged tissues appear dark © McGraw Hill, LLC 72  Radiologic Images of the Head – Positron Emission Tomographic (PET) Scan © ISM/Sovereign/Medical Images Access the text alternative for slide images. Figure 1.11e © McGraw Hill, LLC 73  Medical Imaging 4 Sonography Second oldest and second most widely used High-frequency sound waves echo back from internal organs Avoids harmful X-rays so good for obstetrics Image not very sharp © McGraw Hill, LLC 74  Fetal Sonography a. © Kevin Brofsky/Getty Images; b. © Michelle Saco Access the text alternative for slide images. Figure 1.12 © McGraw Hill, LLC 75  End of Main Content Because learning changes everything. ® www.mheducation.com © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. 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