Personal Values in Human Life PDF

# Personal Values in Human Life ## Authors - Lilach Sagiv, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem - Sonia Roccas, The Open University of Israel - Jan Cieciuch, University of Zurich and Cardinal Stefan Wyszyński University in Warsaw - Shalom H. Schwartz, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem ## Correspo...

# Personal Values in Human Life ## Authors - Lilach Sagiv, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem - Sonia Roccas, The Open University of Israel - Jan Cieciuch, University of Zurich and Cardinal Stefan Wyszyński University in Warsaw - Shalom H. Schwartz, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem ## Corresponding Author Lilach Sagiv, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, email: [email protected] ## Acknowledgements This paper was partly funded by: - A grant from the Israel Science Foundation (847/14) to the first and second authors. - Grants from the Recanati Fund of the School of Business Administration, and from the Mandel Scholion Interdisciplinary Research Center, both at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem to the first author. - A grant from The Open University Research Fund of the Open University of Israel to the second author. - The University Research Priority Program Social Networks of the University of Zurich to the third author. ## Abstract The construct of values is central to many fields in the social sciences and humanities. In the past two decades, a growing body of psychological research has investigated the content, structure and consequences of personal values in numerous cultures. Taking a cross-cultural perspective, we review, organize and integrate research into personal values and point to some of the key findings. Personal values are subjective in nature, reflecting what people think and state about themselves. While some question their influence on actions, self-reported values reliably predict a wide range of attitudes, preferences, and overt behaviors. Individuals act in ways that allow them to express their important values and attain the goals underlying them. Thus, understanding personal values means understanding human behavior. ## Why Values Are Important - **Why do some people tend to help others in need while others do not?** - **What accounts for individuals' differences in preferences for occupations?** Personal values play a crucial role in our attitudes and behaviors. Values are shaped by our genetic heritage and by our exposure to multiple environments including the family, education system, community, and society at large. While they are subjective, they still provide invaluable insight into human behavior. ## Defining Values Values refer to what is considered good and worthy. They characterize both individuals and social collectives like nations, business organizations, and religious groups. - **Social collectives** (often termed cultural values) represent the goals that members of a social collective are encouraged to pursue. They serve to justify the actions of members and leaders in pursuit of these goals. - **Individual values** (often termed personal values) are broad desirable goals that motivate people’s actions and serve as guiding principles in their lives. This paper focuses on personal values, but we provide a brief review of cultural values in Box 1. ### Personal Values vs. Related Constructs Values are studied in psychology, but they are also studied in sociology, management, and political science. They are defined as broad, trans-situational, desirable goals that serve as guiding principles in people’s lives. This definition differentiates them from other constructs: - **Needs** - **Motives** - **Personality traits** - **Attitudes** - **Specific goals** However, values share similarities with all of these constructs. ### Characteristics of Values - **Are broad, trans-situational goals** - **Are cognitive representations of motivational goals** - **Are desirable goals** - **Are ordered in hierarchies according to their subjective importance as guiding principles** ## The Content and Structure of Values The number of possible values is extremely large. Any dictionary contains hundreds of value terms. ### Schwartz's Theory of Universal Values Schwartz proposed a theory of universals in the content and structure of personal values that quickly became prominent. Schwartz suggested that values can be organized according to the motivational goals they express. By analyzing the needs of individuals and the requirements for societal survival, he identified ten motivationally distinct types of values (Table 1, Column 2): - **Power** - **Achievement** - **Hedonism** - **Stimulation** - **Self-direction** - **Universalism** - **Benevolence** - **Tradition** - **Conformity** - **Security** ### Refining the Theory Schwartz later refined his theory into 19 values (Table 1, Column 3). ### Value Conflicts and Compatibilities - Some values are mutually compatible, reflecting goals that can be attained simultaneously. - Other values conflict. Actions that promote the attainment of one value are likely to impede the attainment of the other。 Values are structured in a circular continuum, organized according to the motivations they express. Adjacent values express compatible motivations, and opposing values express conflicting motivations. Schwartz further summarized the circular structure by combining the values into four higher order values that form two basic conflicts: 1. **Self-enhancement vs. Self-transcendence** - **Self-enhancement values:** emphasize the pursuit of self-interest by seeking to control people and resources (power) or by exhibiting ambition and socially recognized success (achievement). - **Self-transcendence values:** emphasize concern for others, demonstrating care for the welfare of those with whom one has frequent contact (benevolence) or displaying acceptance, tolerance, and concern for all people—even members of outgroups (universalism). 2. **Openness to change vs. Conservation** - **Openness to change values:** express the motivations for autonomy of thought and action (self-direction) and for novelty and excitement (stimulation). - **Conservation values:** express the motivations to preserve the status quo through maintaining traditional beliefs and customs (tradition), to comply with rules and with expectations of others (conformity), and to seek safety and stability (security). ### Cross-Cultural Evidence Schwartz’s circular model has been supported by over 300 samples from over 80 countries, demonstrating the meaning of the values is similar across cultures. While the structure of values is consistent, the *importance* attributed to values can vary substantially within and across cultures. The higher the level of social development, the clearer the structure of conflicts and compatibilities is. ## Consequences of Values - **Values are a core aspect of the self-concept**. - **Values are related to and reflected in aspects of people’s personal and social identity**. Here we discuss the role of values in: - **Religiosity** - **Career choice** ### Values and Religiosity - The extent of an individual's religiosity is an important aspect of their personal and social identity - Studies reveal that religiosity is consistent with the goals of **conservation values**: particularly *tradition* due to the focus of these values on submitting to transcendental authorities and on reducing uncertainty by emphasizing self-restriction, order, and resistance to change. - **Openness to change values** are inconsistent with religiosity because values like *hedonism* promote autonomy of thought and action, and embrace novelty and change. - There is a consistent pattern across monotheistic religions: religiosity correlates positively with emphasizing conservation values, most strongly *tradition*, and negatively with emphasizing values of openness to change, self-direction, stimulation, and hedonism. ### Values and Career Choice - The work domain is another central aspect of life. - Individuals are heavily invested in their workplace physically, cognitively, and emotionally; and their occupation is an important aspect of their identity. - People with different occupations are characterized by different value priorities (e.g., managers, bankers, and financial advisors emphasize **power** and **achievement** values more than individuals in other occupations, psychologists and social workers emphasize **benevolence** and **universalism** more than others, and secretaries and bookkeepers emphasize **security**, **conformity**, and **tradition** more than others.) ### Value Congruency Value congruency, or fit, between people’s values and their work environment is related to work satisfaction. - This value congruency can be influenced by the individual’s choice of occupation. - It can also be influenced by changes in their values over time to match their occupation and workplace. Studies reveal that the characteristics of workplaces affect values. The importance people attribute to **self-direction** versus **conformity** values increases to the extent to which their work is characterized by: - Low supervision - Complex and varied tasks These effects have transgenerational implications. They are robust and can be found even in societies undergoing social change. However, **environmental complexity** does not fully explain the value differences between people in different occupations. Value differences even exist between people in occupations that are similar in their complexity. Furthermore, value differences exist between people in different occupations, not only in self-direction and conformity values, but also in **self-enhancement** and **self-transcendence** values. - These differences cannot be explained by work complexity. - They are influenced by a **value-based self-selection process** where individuals rely on their values when choosing an occupation or profession. Additionally, the impact of **socialization processes** in environments like universities appear to be minimal and have little impact on values. ## Values and Behavior Towards Others Values influence individuals' thoughts, attitudes, choices, and decisions. They affect how individuals act towards others. We discuss the impact of values on **pro-social behavior**: actions intended to protect or enhance the welfare of others. - **Close others**: People with whom one has direct contact. - **Distant others**: People with whom one is less likely to have direct contact, such as members of outgroups. ### Values and Close Others - **Much of everyday life involves interaction with others.** - **During such interaction, people decide how much to invest in the welfare of others.** Helping others sometimes comes at the expense of promoting one’s own interest, and some choose to contribute, cooperate, and help others rather than compete. - **Benevolence values** (one of the self-transcendence values) express the motivation to care for close others. The more important people view benevolence values, the more likely they are to help others. The importance of benevolence values correlates positively with the likelihood of engaging in helpful acts, such as lending things to neighbors or keeping promises. ### Emphasizing Benevolence Values - People who emphasize this value are more likely to volunteer to help others, donate money to a social cause, or to emphasize a volunteering identity. - They are also more willing to donate to cancer research. ### Priming Benevolence Values Studies that prime participants with *benevolence values* (by having them read benevolence-related words) reveals they are more likely to volunteer or donate to a cause. This effect was also replicated in studies that used a self-persuasion intervention, further demonstrating the influence of these values on behavior. ### Social Dilemmas Social dilemmas confront people with the choice of cooperating with others, at some cost to themselves, or competing (at the expense). Researchers have developed social-dilemma games which simulate real-life behavior, allowing them to investigate overt behavior that simulates real-life behavior. **Values are likely to predict behavior in such games to the extent that each choice in the game leads to attaining a distinct motivational goal.** Social dilemma games designed to investigate cooperation versus competition illustrate the impact of values. Participants were asked to decide whether to: - **Cooperate**: by contributing a fixed amount of money to their partner or group - **Compete**: by keeping the money for themselves (resulting in receiving more money regardless of the actions of other participants in the game) Participants who emphasized **power values** (that express the motivation for power, dominance, and control over others) were more likely to compete. Participants who emphasized **self-transcendence values** (particularly *benevolence*) were more likely to cooperate. ### Value Expressive and Value Ambivalent Behaviors - **Value expressive behavior**: is compatible with one motivation. - **Value ambivalent behavior**: can serve more than one motivational goal. ### Values and Distant Others - **Much of the research examining the relations of values to action toward distant others examines tolerance**: towards people who differ from societal norms in their socio-demographic characteristics (e.g., ethnicity, religion) or in their personal attitudes and preferences. ### Universalism Values and Tolerance - **Universalism values** (a self-transcendence value) express concern for the welfare of all others, including those whose life-style differs from one's own, and foster tolerance. - **Openness to change** values, specifically *novelty* and *excitement*, promote tolerance. ### Conservation Values and Tolerance **Conservation values** promote obedience to prevailing norms and expectations (conformity values) and a resistance to anything new (tradition values). - **Tolerance** may be compatible with self-enhancement values, but it can also be conflicting based on the social context. ### Cross-Cultural Research and Tolerance - *Universalism* and *openness-to-change values* correlate with tolerance. - *Conservation values* are associated with intolerance ### The Impact of Values on Reactions to Diversity In a study that manipulated the salience of the heterogeneity or homogeneity of the religious ingroup, researchers found that: - **Conservation values** moderated the reactions to the photographs: - Participants who attributed high importance to conservation values expressed more tolerance in the homogeneity than in the heterogeneity condition. - Those who attributed low importance to conservation values expressed more tolerance in the heterogeneity condition. This finding was conceptually replicated in a field study in Israel where the *diversity of individuals' networks* moderated the effects of network diversity on tolerance. ## The Origins of Values - Where do people's different values come from and how are they shaped? - **Phylogenetic perspective** - **Ontogenetic perspective** ### The Phylogenetic Perspective This perspective explains why there is a relatively similar, pan-cultural hierarchy of values across societies. It examines the processes through which individuals' hierarchies of values are formed. It suggests that the crucial role of groups for human Survival is the main driving factor in the development of values. - **Groups** require their members to communicate about and coordinate their interests, needs, and behaviors in order to enhance their chances for survival. - **Shared representations** of socially desirable goals are central to the shared meaning systems that develop as group members seek to coordinate their goal-seeking activities. - **Values are a core element of culture.** **The similarity of the hierarchy of values found in most cultures is not accidental. It reflects the conditions needed for group survival and welfare. This hierarchy supports and promotes the following:** - **Stability of relations**: - Resources - Ways of dealing with internal and external dangers - **Plasticity and adaptation**: - To changing environmental conditions **Empirical research** supports **wide-spread pan-cultural agreement on the most important values**: Benevolence and self-direction. - **Benevolence**: is important for maintaining in-group cooperation and solidarity, contributing to the stability of social relations. - **Self-direction**: Is important for encouraging and supporting plasticity by motivating independent initiatives and novel ideas and solutions. ## The Ontogenetic Perspective This perspective seeks to explain the inter-individual diversity of value preferences. - **Value hierarchies are shaped quite early**: The circular structure of values is found among 5-12 year olds. Children at age 5 already distinguish between the different values and that their value hierarchies reflect the conflicts and compatibilities between the values, but the importance of specific values changes over time as part of psychosocial development. - **Values stabilize during adolescence**: They become a core element of personal identity, with little change during adulthood. - **Individual differences**: in value priorities derive from **both biologically based individual temperament/personality and social and cultural influences**. ### Genetic and Environmental Influences on Values - Studies provide estimates of the genetic basis of value preferences (ranging from 29%-47% to 28%-55% to 11%-38%). - Environmental influences**: Parental values, the characteristics of the occupational environment, and the overall social and cultural surroundings. ### Value Transmission - **Parents generally desire their children to have values similar to their own.** - **There is high congruence between the value hierarchies of parents and those of their children.** ### The Socialization of Values - Children **perceive** the values of their parents more or less accurately and **choose** to adopt or reject the values they perceive. - **The value similarity between parents and children is due not to direct value transmission**, but to the environment and to the culture they share. ## Stability and Change of Values - **Values are relatively stable over time**. - **Major life-transitions can produce substantial value change.** ### Evidence of Value Change - **Immigration**: Studies of immigrants reveal changes in the importance of specific values. - **Values are rarely changed deliberately**. However social institutions, such as universities, attempt to shape values, but the success of this is minimal at best. - **Intervention programs** (like self-confrontation and self-persuasion) can trigger value change. ### The Structure of Value Change - **The structure of within-person values change was similar to the prototypical structure of values**: when the importance of a value increased, the importance of its opposing value decreased. ## Concluding Remarks Values are a core aspect of people’s identity and they affect their attitudes and behaviors. This review has drawn from research conducted in many sub-disciplines of psychology: personality, social, developmental, occupational, organizational, and cross-cultural. This research shows that values can serve as a unifying construct, providing insight into how people are motivated. - **Values are stable goals**. - **Values are abstract**, predicting very different behaviors. - **Values form an integrated system**. **Research on the consequences of values has progressed, but more research is needed to understand the processes through which values are translated into behavior.** **Less is known about the origin of values.** This review highlighted the phylogenetic and ontogenetic perspectives, and some new developments in value research that suggest personal values are formed through a combination of genetic heritage and exposure to multiple social environments (e.g., family, school, community, and society). - **Future research should investigate how values are grounded in the neuro-biological system.** ## Competing Interests The authors declare no competing interests. ## References - Williams, R. M. 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