Erikson's Psychosocial Theory PDF

Erikson's Psychosocial Theory ----------------------------- Now, let's turn to a less controversial psychodynamic theorist, the father of developmental psychology, Erik Erikson (1902-1994). Erikson was a student of Freud's and expanded on his theory of psychosexual development by emphasizing the im...

Erikson's Psychosocial Theory ----------------------------- Now, let's turn to a less controversial psychodynamic theorist, the father of developmental psychology, Erik Erikson (1902-1994). Erikson was a student of Freud's and expanded on his theory of psychosexual development by emphasizing the importance of culture in parenting practices and motivations and adding three stages of adult development (Erikson, 1950; 1968). Background ---------- As an art school dropout with an uncertain future, young Erik Erikson met Freud's daughter, Anna Freud, while he was tutoring the children of an American couple undergoing psychoanalysis in Vienna. It was Anna Freud who encouraged Erikson to study psychoanalysis. Erikson received his diploma from the Vienna Psychoanalytic Institute in 1933, and as Nazism spread across Europe, he fled the country and immigrated to the United States that same year. Erikson later proposed a psychosocial theory of development, suggesting that an individual's personality develops throughout the lifespan---a departure from Freud's view that personality is fixed in early life. In his theory, Erikson emphasized the social relationships that are important at each stage of personality development, in contrast to Freud's emphasis on erogenous zones. Erikson identified eight stages, each of which includes a conflict or developmental task. The development of a healthy personality and a sense of competence depend on the successful completion of each task. Psychosocial Stages of Development ---------------------------------- Erikson believed that we are aware of what motivates us throughout life and that the ego has greater importance in guiding our actions than does the id. We make conscious choices in life, and these choices focus on meeting certain social and cultural needs rather than purely biological ones. Humans are motivated, for instance, by the need to feel that the world is a trustworthy place, that we are capable individuals, that we can make a contribution to society, and that we have lived a meaningful life. These are all psychosocial problems. Erikson's theory is based on what he calls the *epigenetic principle*, encompassing the notion that we develop through an unfolding of our personality in predetermined stages, and that our environment and surrounding culture influence how we progress through these stages. This biological unfolding in relation to our socio-cultural settings is done in stages of psychosocial development, where "progress through each stage is in part determined by our success, or lack of success, in all the previous stages."[**^\[1\]^**](https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-lifespandevelopment/chapter/erikson-and-psychosocial-theory/#footnote-148-1) Erikson described eight stages, each with a major psychosocial task to accomplish or crisis to overcome. Erikson believed that our personality continues to take shape throughout our life span as we face these challenges. We will discuss each of these stages in greater detail when we discuss each of these life stages throughout the course. Here is an overview of each stage: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. **Stage** **Approximate Age (years)** **Virtue: Developmental Task** **Description** ----------------------------------------------------- ----------------------------- -------------------------------------------- ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 1 0--1 **Hope: Trust vs. Mistrust ** Trust (or mistrust) that basic needs, such as nourishment and affection, will be met 2 1--3 **Will: Autonomy vs. Shame ** Sense of independence in many tasks develops 3 3--6 **Purpose: Initiative vs. Guilt ** Take initiative on some activities, may develop guilt when success not met or boundaries overstepped 4 7--11 **Competence: Industry vs. Inferiority ** Develop self-confidence in abilities when competent or sense of inferiority when not 5 12--18 **Fidelity: Identity vs. Role Confusion ** Experiment with and develop identity and roles 6 19--39 **Love: Intimacy vs. Isolation ** Establish intimacy and relationships with others 7 40--64 **Care: Generativity vs. Stagnation** Contribute to society and be part of a family 8 65+ **Wisdom: Integrity vs. Despair ** Assess and make sense of life and meaning of contributions *** Erikson's Psychosocial Stages of Development*** Strengths and weaknesses of Erikson's theory -------------------------------------------- Erikson's eight stages form a foundation for discussions on emotional and social development during the lifespan. Keep in mind, however, that these stages or crises can occur more than once or at different times of life. For instance, a person may struggle with a lack of trust beyond infancy. Erikson's theory has been criticized for focusing so heavily on stages and assuming that the completion of one stage is a prerequisite for the next crisis of development. His theory also focuses on the social expectations that are found in certain cultures, but not in all. For instance, the idea that adolescence is a time of searching for identity might translate well in the middle-class culture of the United States, but not as well in cultures where the transition into adulthood coincides with puberty through rites of passage and where adult roles offer fewer choices. By and large, Erikson's view that development continues throughout the lifespan is very significant and has received great recognition. However, like Freud's theory, it has been criticized for focusing on more men than women and also for its vagueness, making it difficult to test rigorously. **Psychosexual Stages of Development** -------------------------------------- Freud\'s psychosexual theory states **five stages** of human development: oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital. These psychosexual stages capture the main growth points of a person from infancy to adulthood and focus on different facets of wants, needs, and desires. Here are three terms Freud used within this theory: - **Libido**: Sexual energy that can manifest through different types of behaviors - **Fixation**: The idea that part of a person\'s libido is stuck in a particular stage of development through overindulgence or disruption - **Erogenous Zone**: A part of the body that is sensitive to stimulation The basis of Freud\'s theory suggests that a person\'s body has several erogenous zones, believing a person\'s libido would grow over time and look for satisfaction through different types of behaviors using these zones, such as thumb sucking or sex. Depending on what happens in each stage, a person will quickly move from one stop to the next or develop fixations based on overindulging or disruption. In addition to the five stages, Freud also explained conscious and unconscious desires through the id, ego, and superego. - **Id**: An instinctive aspect of our biology where the impulsive part of us has desires and will do anything to fulfill them. - **Ego**: A mediator between the id and the world. The ego uses reason to quell desires and fit into society. - **Superego**: The moral high ground, incorporating learned behaviors from caretakers and societal norms. The superego balances the perfectionism of the ego and harnesses the chaotic nature of the id. **Oral Stage (Birth To 2 Year)** -------------------------------- The Oral Stage is the first stage of Sigmund Freud's theory of psychosexual development, occurring from birth until approximately 18 months. During the oral stage, a baby's libido, or innate pleasure-seeking energy, is focused on the mouth. ### Example The baby derives immense satisfaction from engaging in oral activities such as sucking, biting, breastfeeding, and chewing various objects, satisfying their inherent desires. During the oral stages, the baby gets much satisfaction from putting all sorts of things in its mouth to satisfy the libido. An example of this stage is an infant who gains pleasure from sucking on a pacifier or bottle. This gives them satisfaction and helps them learn about their environment. ### Oral Fixation Freud theorized that experiences during the oral stage significantly influence personality development. For instance, he suggested that a child underfed or frustrated during feedings might become a pessimistic, envious, and suspicious adult. On the other hand, a child who is overfed or overly gratified could become optimistic, gullible, and full of admiration. Freud also linked oral behaviors to specific personality types in adulthood. For example, a person fixated on the oral stage may engage in excessive eating, smoking, nail-biting, or becoming overly talkative, symbolizing the continued fulfillment of oral needs. We see oral personalities around us, such as smokers, nail-biters, over-eaters, and thumb-suckers.  Oral personalities engage in such oral behaviors, particularly when under stress. **Anal Stage (1 To 3 Years)** ----------------------------- The anal stage is the second stage of psychosexual development happens between the ages of 18 months and three years. During the anal stage, the libido becomes focused on the anus, and the child derives great pleasure from defecating.  An example of this stage would be a child who takes pleasure in controlling and releasing their bowels. Freud believed this type of conflict tends to come to a head in potty training, in which adults impose restrictions on when and where the child can defecate.  The nature of this first conflict with authority can determine the child's future relationship with all forms of authority. ### Anal Fixation Unresolved conflicts or issues during this stage can lead to problems later on, such as excessive cleanliness, stubbornness, or a need for control. The way parents approach toilet training can lead to two outcomes: 1. 2. **Phallic Stage (3 To 6 Years)** -------------------------------- The phallic stage, which spans ages three to six, is the third phase of psychosexual development, identified by Sigmund Freud. This period is marked by the child's libido (or desire) focusing on their genitals as the primary source of pleasure. In this stage, children become increasingly aware of their bodies, exhibiting a heightened interest in their own genitals and those of the opposite sex. Additionally, their understanding of anatomical sex differences begins to form, sparking a complex mixture of emotions -- erotic attraction, rivalry, jealousy, resentment, and fear -- collectively termed the Oedipus complex in boys and the Electra complex in girls. This period of conflict is resolved through identification, where children start adopting the characteristics of their same-sex parent. ### Phallic Stage Fixation Freud theorized that unresolved conflicts during this stage could potentially lead to future issues such as sexual dysfunction, problems with gender identity, or difficulties in forming relationships. If fixation occurs during this stage, Freud suggested it may lead to various issues in adulthood. Freud suggested that fixations at this point could lead to adult personalities that are overly vain, exhibitionistic, and sexually aggressive.  In men, phallic fixation might result in anxiety about sexual performance, the need for reassurance and validation, or a tendency to be overly assertive or aggressive. In women, fixation at the phallic stage could lead to a desire to dominate men, a rivalry with other women, or the need for male attention or approval. ### Oedipus Complex The most important aspect of the phallic stage is the [Oedipus complex](https://www.simplypsychology.org/oedipal-complex.html).  This is one of Freud's most controversial ideas that many reject outright. The name of the Oedipus complex derives from the Greek myth where Oedipus, a young man, kills his father and marries his mother. Upon discovering this, he pokes his eyes out and becomes blind.  This Oedipal is the generic (i.e., general) term for both Oedipus and Electra complexes. In the young boy, the Oedipus complex or conflict arises because the boy develops sexual (pleasurable) desires for his mother.  He wants to possess his mother exclusively and get rid of his father to enable him to do so. Irrationally, the boy thinks that if his father were to find out about all this, his father would take away what he loves the most.  During the phallic stage, what the boy loves most is his penis.  Hence the boy develops **castration anxiety**. According to Freud, the fear of retaliation from the father (castration anxiety) eventually leads the boy to repress these incestuous desires and identify with the father, adopting his characteristics and values. The little boy then begins to resolve this problem by imitating, copying, and joining in masculine dad-type behaviors.  This is called **identification** and is how the three-to-five-year-old boy resolves his Oedipus complex. Identification means internally adopting another person's values, attitudes, and behaviors.  The consequence is that the boy takes on the male gender role, and adopts an ego ideal and values that become the superego. Freud (1909) offered the [Little Hans](https://www.simplypsychology.org/little-hans.html) case study as evidence of the Oedipus complex. ### ***Electra Complex*** The [Electra Complex](https://www.simplypsychology.org/what-is-the-electra-complex.html), a component of Freud's psychoanalytic theory, posits that during the phallic stage of psychosexual development (roughly between ages 3-6), a girl unconsciously cultivates a sexual attraction towards her father, viewing her mother as a competitor. In essence, the girl covets her father, yet recognizes that she lacks a penis, leading to the phenomenon Freud labeled as '**penis envy**'and a subsequent wish to be male. This girl then ostensibly resolves her dilemma by repressing her desire for her father and replacing her yearning for a penis with a longing for a baby. During this process, the girl purportedly blames her mother for her 'castrated state,' generating significant tension. In order to alleviate this tension, she then **represses** her feelings and begins to identify with her mother, thereby adopting a traditional female gender role. However, it's important to note that these theories have been widely contested and aren't broadly accepted in contemporary psychology. **Latency Stage (6 Years To Puberty)** -------------------------------------- The latency stage is the fourth stage of psychosexual development, spanning six years to puberty. The libido is dormant during this stage, and no further psychosexual development occurs (latent means hidden). In this stage, Freud believed sexual impulses are repressed, leading to a period of relative calm. During this stage, children's sexual impulses become suppressed (the libido is dormant), and no further psychosexual development occurs (latent means hidden). ### Example The focus shifts to other pursuits such as education, social relationships, and other skills necessary for successful adult life.  Children focus on developing social and intellectual skills, including school, friendships, and hobbies, instead of on sexual or romantic interests. Freud thought most sexual impulses are repressed during the latent stage, and sexual energy can be [sublimated](https://www.simplypsychology.org/defense-mechanisms.html) towards school work, hobbies, and friendships. Much of the child's energy is channeled into developing new skills and acquiring new knowledge, and play becomes largely confined to other children of the same gender. An example of this stage would be a child who engages in hobbies and interests rather than sexual activities. ### Latency Stage Fixation According to Freud, unresolved conflicts or issues during this stage can lead to problems later on, such as difficulty expressing emotions or forming healthy relationships. For instance, if a child fails to make strong social connections or falls behind academically during this stage, they may struggle with feelings of inadequacy, [insecurity](https://www.simplypsychology.org/insecurities-in-a-relationship.html), and social isolation in adulthood. If a child fails to make strong social connections -- perhaps they struggle to make friends or fit in with their peers -- this could impact their social skills and potentially lead to feelings of isolation or inadequacy. Similarly, if a child falls behind academically during this stage -- perhaps struggling with reading, writing, or math skills -- they might feel less competent than their peers, leading to insecurity or inadequacy. This stage ends with the onset of puberty, when sexual urges resurface, and the individual enters the final stage of Freud's psychosexual development, the Genital Stage. **Genital Stage (Puberty to Adult)** ------------------------------------ The Genital Stage is the fifth and final phase of Freud's psychosexual development theory, beginning at puberty and lasting into adulthood. During this stage, the libido re-emerges after its latent period and is directed towards peers of the other sex, marking the onset of mature adult sexuality. During this stage, individuals start to become sexually mature and begin to explore their sexual feelings and desires more maturely and responsibly. This period marks the onset of romantic and sexual emotions, leading to the formation of intimate relationships. Sexual instinct is directed to heterosexual pleasure, rather than self-pleasure, like during the phallic stage. ### Example An example of this stage would be a teenager who begins to experience sexual attraction and begins to explore their sexuality. As they mature physically, they develop deeper romantic interests and sexual attractions toward others. These feelings may lead to their first romantic relationship, or perhaps a crush on a peer. The teenager might also learn about sexual education and understand the importance of consent and safe sex. They might experience emotional ups and downs as they navigate these new feelings and relationships. This stage isn't just about sexual attraction, but also about forming meaningful emotional bonds with others. Through their experiences, they better understand their own sexual identity and learn how to form mutually satisfying relationships. It is a time of adolescent sexual experimentation, the successful resolution of which is settling down in a loving one-to-one relationship with another person in our 20s. ### Genital Stage Fixation For Freud, the proper outlet of the sexual instinct in adults was through heterosexual intercourse.  Fixation and conflict may prevent this with the consequence that sexual perversions may develop. For example, fixation at the oral stage may result in a person gaining sexual pleasure primarily from kissing and oral sex, rather than sexual intercourse. According to Freud, if individuals have unresolved conflicts or issues during this stage, it can lead to problems such as sexual dysfunction, difficulties forming healthy relationships, or other emotional problems. Critical Evaluation ------------------- Does evidence support Freudian psychology? Freud's theory is good at explaining but not at predicting behavior (which is one of the goals of science). For this reason, Freud's theory is [unfalsifiable](http://karl-popper.html/) -- it can neither be proved true nor refuted. For example, the libido is difficult to test and measure objectively. Overall, Freud's theory is highly unscientific. Freud may also have shown research bias in his interpretations -- he may have only paid attention to information that supported his theories and ignored information and other explanations that did not fit them. However, Fisher & Greenberg (1996) argue that Freud's theory should be evaluated in terms of specific hypotheses rather than as a whole. They concluded that evidence supports Freud's concepts of oral and anal personalities. \*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*end of entry\*\*\*\*\*\*\* Prepared By: Esteban Sabar Understanding the Self **DEFENSE MECHANISM:** ---------------------- Continuing Education Activity ----------------------------- Anna Freud defined defense mechanisms as \"unconscious resources used by the ego\" to decrease internal stress ultimately. Patients often devise these unconscious mechanisms to decrease conflict within themselves, specifically between the superego and id. Psychodynamic therapy is used by clinicians to help orient patients to their own unconscious processes. By recognizing and identifying these processes, patients improve their self-awareness and gain a new understanding of their own behaviors. This activity defines major defense mechanisms to increase clinician\'s understanding of their patients during patient encounters and the role of the inter professional team in the care of these patients. **Objectives:** - Identify and define the common psychological defense mechanisms. - Describe the goal of psychodynamic therapy in relation to defense mechanisms. - Review the clinical significance of defense mechanisms in relation to psychodynamic therapy. - Outline inter professional team strategies for improving coordination and communication in the care of patients with defense mechanisms. Introduction ------------ Sigmund Freud, known as the father of psychoanalysis, began the discussion of defense mechanisms in the nineteenth century in relation to the subconscious defenses of the id, ego, and superego.[\[1\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK559106/) These initial defense mechanisms were more clearly defined and analyzed by his daughter, Anna Freud, in the twentieth century. She created 10 major defense mechanisms, but the number of mechanisms has since been increased by later psychoanalysts. Function -------- Anna Freud defined these defense mechanisms as \"unconscious resources used by the ego\" to decrease internal stress ultimately.[\[2\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK559106/) Patients often devise these unconscious mechanisms to decrease conflict within themselves, specifically between the superego and id. Psychodynamic therapy is used by clinicians to help orient patients to their own unconscious processes. By recognizing and identifying these processes, patients improve their self-awareness and gain a new understanding of their own behaviors. These insights can be helpful to patients with a variety of mental health disorders, including depression, anxiety, eating disorders, and personality disorders.[\[3\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK559106/)  Issues of Concern ----------------- As we progress from childhood to adolescence and then progress from adolescence into adulthood, these psychological defense mechanisms can persist from one phase to the next, regress to earlier phases in response to stressors, or can evolve over time.[\[4\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK559106/) Defense mechanisms can be internalized or externalized, resulting in corresponding behavior problems, which can complicate psychiatric treatment.[\[5\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK559106/) Having a thorough understanding of defense mechanisms can help clinicians progress through treatment and avoid pitfalls. For example, recognizing the presence of defense mechanisms during a patient encounter can help maintain an appropriate therapeutic and professional relationship.[\[6\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK559106/) Clinical Significance --------------------- If defense mechanisms are identified and adolescence, it can help predict further development of personality disorders.[\[7\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK559106/) Therefore, the early identification of defense mechanisms can have great clinical significance. Depending on the context and the severity, defense mechanisms can be either maladaptive or adaptive.[\[8\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK559106/) **Primitive Defense Mechanisms** [\[1\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK559106/) [\[9\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK559106/) **Acting out**: The development of detrimental behaviors that distract attention and energy away from other stressors. This defense mechanism may be present in conduct disorder, antisocial personality disorder, or oppositional defiant disorder.  **Avoidance**: Dismissing thoughts or feelings that are uncomfortable or keeping away from people, places, or situations associated with uncomfortable thoughts or feelings. This defense mechanism may be present in post-traumatic stress disorder, where one avoids the location of a traumatic motor vehicle accident or avoids driving completely.  **Conversion**: The development of physical symptoms that cannot be explained by pathophysiology or physical injury. This defense mechanism is recognized in conversion disorder, also known as functional neurologic symptom disorder.  **Denial**: Dismissing external reality and instead focusing on internal explanations or fallacies and thereby avoiding the uncomfortable reality of a situation. This defense mechanism may be present in someone who continues to shop for expensive designer clothes despite being in serious financial debt.  **Identification**: The internalization or reproduction of behaviors observed in others, such as a child developing the behavior of his or her parents without conscious realization of this process. Identification is also known as introjection.  **Projection**: Attributing one's own maladaptive inner impulses to someone else. For example, someone who commits an episode of infidelity in their marriage may then accuse their partner of infidelity or may become more suspicious of their partner.  **Regression**: Adapting one's behavior to earlier levels of psychosocial development. For example, a stressful event may cause an individual to regress to bed-wetting after they have already outgrown this behavior.  **Repression**: Subconsciously blocking ideas or impulses that are undesirable. This defense mechanism may be present in someone who has no recollection of a traumatic event, even though they were conscious and aware during the event.  **Schizoid fantasy**: Creating an internal retreat into one's imagination to avoid uncomfortable situations. This defense mechanism may present commonly in children or later in development, may be present in schizoid personality disorder.  **Splitting**: Failing to reconcile both positive and negative attributes into a whole understanding of a person or situation, resulting in all-or-none thinking. Splitting is commonly associated with borderline personality disorder.  **Higher-level Defense Mechanisms** [\[10\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK559106/) **Anticipation**: The devotion of one's effort to solving problems before they arise. This defense mechanism may be present in someone who prepares for an important job interview by practicing their answers to the toughest questions.  **Compensation**: Focusing on achievement in one area of life in order to distract attention away from the inadequacy or fear of inadequacy in another area of life. This defense mechanism may be present in a student who receives poor grades on their report card and then devotes more time and effort to extracurricular clubs and activities.  **Displacement**: Transferring one's emotional burden or emotional reaction from one entity to another. This defense mechanism may be present in someone who has a stressful day at work and then lashes out against their family at home.  **Humor**: Decreasing or combating the negative emotions associated with a situation by using comedy. For example, telling a funny story about someone during a eulogy.  **Intellectualization**: The development of patterns of excessive thinking or over-analyzing, which may increase the distance from one\'s emotions. For example, someone diagnosed with a terminal illness does not show emotion after the diagnosis is given but instead starts to research every source they can find about the illness.  **Isolation of Affect**: Avoiding the experience of an emotion associated with a person, idea, or situation. This defense mechanism may be present in someone who describes the day their house burnt down in a factual way without displaying any emotion.  **Rationalization**: The justification of one's behavior through attempts at a rational explanation. This defense mechanism may be present in someone who steals money but feels justified in doing so because they needed the money more than the person from whom they stole.  **Reaction formation**: Replacing one's initial impulse toward a situation or idea with the opposite impulse. This defense mechanism may be present in someone who teases or insults a romantic interest whom they like. Conversely, reaction formation may be present in someone who is overly kind to someone whom they dislike.  **Sexualization**: Associating sexual aspects to one's experience of certain people, places, objects, or ideas. Sexualization can refer to the development of one's sexual identity in general. Alternatively, sexualization can refer to the development of specific fetishes or sexual references to conventionally non-sexual entities.  **Sublimation**: Transforming one's anxiety or emotions into pursuits considered by societal or cultural norms to be more useful. This defense mechanism may be present in someone who channels their aggression and energy into playing sports.  **Suppression**: Consciously choosing to block ideas or impulses that are undesirable, as opposed to repression, a subconscious process. This defense mechanism may be present in someone who has intrusive thoughts about a traumatic event but pushes these thoughts out of their mind. *Noted:* *Esteban Sabar* *GE 1* *UNDERSTANDING THE SELF* Psychoanalyst Erik Erikson\'s stages of psychosocial development theorize a model of human [psychological](https://www.thoughtco.com/psychodynamic-theory-4588302) growth made up of eight stages that cover the entire lifespan from birth to old age. Each stage is defined by a central crisis that the individual must grapple with to move on to the next stage. Erikson's theory has been highly influential in scholars' understanding of human development and [identity](https://www.thoughtco.com/identity-diffusion-definition-examples-4177580) formation. ### Key Takeaways: Erikson\'s Stages of Development - Erik Erikson\'s stages of development describe eight periods spanning the human lifecycle. - Development does not end when an individual reaches adulthood, but continues for their whole life. - Each stage of development revolves around a central crisis that the individual must contend with to progress to the next stage. - Success at each stage relies on succeeding in previous stages. People must proceed through the stages in the order laid out by Erikson. Trust vs. Mistrust ------------------ The first stage takes place in infancy and ends around age 1. [Letting caretakers out of sight](https://www.thoughtco.com/attachment-theory-4771954) without anxiety is an infant\'s first social achievement. In other words, infants must develop a sense of trust in their caretakers and the people around them. Newborns come into the world vulnerable and dependent on others to survive. When a child's caretakers successfully provide for their needs---like food, warmth, and safety---the child develops confidence in the world as a safe and secure place. If the child's needs are not met, however, they come to perceive the world as inconsistent and untrustworthy. This doesn't mean that all mistrust is bad. A certain amount of mistrust is necessary; without it, a child could become too trusting and consequently would not know when to be skeptical of people's intentions. Still, an individual should emerge from this stage with a greater sense of trust than mistrust. An infant who triumphs in this endeavor will develop the virtue of hope, which is the belief that desires are achievable despite the chaos of the world. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt ---------------------------- The second stage takes place when the child is around 2 or 3 years old. Growing children become more capable of doing things on their own. If they are supported in their newfound independence, they learn confidence in their abilities. On the other hand children who are too controlled or criticized will start to doubt their ability to take care of themselves. A kid who emerges from this stage with a greater sense of autonomy than shame or doubt develops the virtue of will: the ability to make choices freely while also having self-control when appropriate. Initiative vs. Guilt -------------------- The third stage takes place between the ages of 3 and 6. [Preschool-age children](https://www.thoughtco.com/choosing-the-right-private-school-4132512) start to take initiative in pursuing individual objectives. When they are successful, they develop a sense of competence in their ability to make and achieve goals. If accomplishing their goals meets resistance or becomes socially problematic, they experience guilt. Too much guilt can lead to a lack of self-confidence. Someone who emerges from this stage with an overall positive experience in taking initiative develops the virtue of purpose, or the ability to determine what they want and go for it. Industry vs. Inferiority ------------------------ The fourth stage takes place from 6 to 11 years old, marked by the child's first forays into grade school and structured learning. This is the first time they must try to understand and contend with the expectations of the wider culture. At this age, kids learn what it means to be a good member of society in terms of productivity and morality. Children who come to believe they cannot function properly in society develop feelings of inferiority. Those who experience success at this stage acquire the virtue of competence, developing sufficient skills and learning to be capable at different tasks. Identity vs. Role Confusion --------------------------- The fifth stage takes place during adolescence and in some cases can [extend into the 20s](https://www.thoughtco.com/emerging-adulthood-developmental-stage-4175472). With the onset of puberty, physical and cognitive changes cause adolescents to consider the future for the first time. They\'re trying to figure out who they are and what they want. On the other hand, they\'ll worry about making unwise commitments, and are concerned about the way others, especially their peers, perceive them. While identity development is a lifelong process, the fifth stage a key time for individuation as adolescents start to choose and pursue the roles they wish to fulfill as adults. They also must begin to develop a worldview that gives them a sense of personal perspective. Success here results in a coherent sense of identity that leads to the virtue of fidelity, which is loyalty to one's commitments. Intimacy vs. Isolation ---------------------- The sixth stage takes place during young adulthood. While adolescents are often too preoccupied to truly be intimate with another person, young adults are individuals with an established sense of their own identity who can achieve genuine interpersonal connections. At this stage, those whose relationships remain impersonal experience isolation. People who achieve more intimacy than isolation at this stage will develop the virtue of mature love. Generativity vs. Stagnation --------------------------- The seventh stage takes place during [midlife](https://www.thoughtco.com/good-bad-and-ugly-turning-50-3534233). At this time, people turn their attention to what they\'ll offer the next generation. Erikson called this "generativity." Adults who produce something that contributes to the future, like creative works and new ideas, are being generative. Adults who are unsuccessful at this stage become stagnant, self-absorbed, and bored. However, generative adults who contribute to the next generation avoid becoming overly self-indulgent and develop the virtue of care. Ego Integrity vs. Despair ------------------------- The eighth and final stage takes place during old age. At this point, people start to look back on their lives. If they can accept and find meaning in their lifelong accomplishments, they\'ll achieve integrity. If people look back and don't like what they see, they realize that life is too short to try out alternatives or repair regrets, which leads to despair. Finding meaning in one's life in old age results in the virtue of wisdom. The Structure of the Stages --------------------------- Erikson was influenced by the work of Sigmund Freud, particularly Freud\'s stage theory of psychosexual development. Erikson expanded on the five stages [outlined by Freud](https://www.thoughtco.com/id-ego-and-superego-4582342) by assigning psychosocial tasks to each stage, then adding three additional stages for later periods of adulthood. Erikson's stages rest on the epigenetic principle, the idea that one moves through each stage depending on the outcome of the previous one and, therefore, that individuals must go through the stages in a specific order. At each stage, individuals must wrestle with a central psychosocial conflict to advance to the next stage. Each stage has a particular conflict because individual growth and sociocultural context work together to bring that conflict to the individual\'s attention at a particular point in life. For example, an infant who develops more mistrust than trust in a caretaker during the first stage may experience role confusion during the fifth stage. Similarly, if an adolescent emerges from the fifth stage without having successfully developed a strong sense of identity, he or she may have difficulty developing intimacy during the sixth stage. Because of such structural elements, Erikson's theory communicates two key points: 1. Development does not stop at adulthood. Rather, individuals continue to develop throughout their entire lifespan. 2. Each stage of development hinges upon the individual's interaction with the social world. Critiques --------- Erikson\'s stage theory has faced some criticism for its limitations. Erikson was vague about what an individual must experience to successfully overcome the conflict of each stage. He also wasn't specific about how people move through the various stages. Erikson knew that his work was unclear. He explained his intention to provide context and descriptive detail for development, not precise facts about developmental mechanisms. Nevertheless, Erikson's theory inspired much research into human development, identity, and personality. Prepared by Esteban Sabar UTS GE1