Human Development PDF

P S Y 1 HUMAN DEVELOPMENT M S. E R I C A A N G E L THE GIVING TREE CHANGES FROM THE BOY 1. PRIORITY 2. VALUE 3. AFFECTION INCLUDES THE CHANGES IN “PSYCHE” CHANGES IN THE LIFE-SPAN  HUMAN DEVELOPMENT refers to the study of the patterns of growth and change that...

P S Y 1 HUMAN DEVELOPMENT M S. E R I C A A N G E L THE GIVING TREE CHANGES FROM THE BOY 1. PRIORITY 2. VALUE 3. AFFECTION INCLUDES THE CHANGES IN “PSYCHE” CHANGES IN THE LIFE-SPAN  HUMAN DEVELOPMENT refers to the study of the patterns of growth and change that occur throughout life.  NATURE VS. NURTURE HEREDITARY MATURATION can be seen for instance the unfolding biologically through the development of predetermined patterns of sex characteristics (such as behavior in producing breast and body hair) that developmental change. occurs at the start of adolescence. Prenatal Period From 0-9 months Zygote - 2 weeks Embryo - 6 weeks Fetus - 9 weeks In 6 months organs develop and are already responsive to sound. Fetus is exposed to the sound of its mother's muffled voice. Treatment of Unborn Babies Every living thing has a right to life. An unborn child is a living thing. Therefore an unborn child has a right to life. Moments Before Prenatal Period Woman’s Womb Realizations During Pre-Natal Period 1.Your body is a MIRACLE. 1/500,000,000 So what? Your body is a MIRACLE? RESPONSES: 1. Live with Gratitude 2. Give your existence value 2.The foundation of the psyche starts here PHYSICAL (Hardware) + NON-PHYSICAL (Software) The genes we inherit has already predetermined our looks and much of our character…whether we are stubborn, intelligent, thrill seeker or good at music and even our vulnerability to certain diseases. The exact course of our life will depend on such things as friends, family, and environment…But in the instance of fertilization, much of our future are predetermined.  BILLIONS OF INSTRUCTIONS MESSAGES? MIND INVOLVED! WHO “WROTE” THE LANGUAGE? SCIENCE CANNOT ENCODE THE GENETIC ALPHABET CHAMBA LANG DAW?  3. Genetic characteristics matter in choosing a partner Sperm (genetic code) and egg (generic code) = Your Baby Genetic Compatibility Test  3. Genetic characteristics matter in choosing a partner Hypothetical Scenario: Mahal na mahal mo pero hindi kayo genetically compatible? Hindi lang puro puso ang pinapairal. Genetic Factor + Prayer 4.Sexuality starts here  Prenatal Sex Differences Gender Stereotypes John Money Males are? Females are? SEXUALITY NOT PURELY NURTURE  When men and women are able to respect and accept their differences then love has chance to blossom. -John Gray  5. Healthy prenatal period depends on efforts of parents What to avoid during pregnancy? 1. Stress 2. Smoking 3. Aspirins 4. Cats 5. Caffeine 6. Too much vitamin A 7. Pesticides 8. Jacuzzi/Sauna Baths 9. Fish with mercury 10. Alcohol  6. Pregnancy requires preparation Physical, Emotional, Financial, Social and Spiritual TEENAGE PREGANCY  Sexual Education + Spiritual Values - Sex Miseducation = Low Teenage Pregnancy Unprepared parenting is a risk factor to the unborn child’s development. Genetic Defects What are genetic disorders? Genetic defects occur when a mutation affects genes or when you have the wrong amount of genetic material. Genes, made of DNA, contain instructions for cell functioning and unique characteristics. Half of each biological parent receives half of their genes, and mutations can be inherited from one or both parents. Some disorder cause symptoms at birth, while others develop over time. Genetic disorders can be: Chromosomal, Complex (multifactorial), and Single-gene (monogenic)  Chromosomal This type affects the structures that hold your genes/DNA within each cell (chromosomes). With these conditions, people are missing or have duplicated chromosome material. Down syndrome (Trisomy 21) is a genetic condition characterized by a baby's extra chromosome number 21, leading to delayed mental and physical development and increased health risks.  Chromosomal This type affects the structures that hold your genes/DNA within each cell (chromosomes). With these conditions, people are missing or have duplicated chromosome material. Klinefelter syndrome is a genetic condition affecting males with an extra X chromosome, leading to various health issues like breast growth, cancer, osteoporosis, infertility, and learning difficulties.  Chromosomal This type affects the structures that hold your genes/DNA within each cell (chromosomes). With these conditions, people are missing or have duplicated chromosome material. Turner syndrome is a genetic disorder affecting girls and women, causing short stature, lack of breast development, and periods due to a missing X chromosome.  Complex (multifactorial) These disorders stem from a combination of gene mutations and other factors. They include chemical exposure, diet, certain medications and tobacco or alcohol use. Cancer arises from gene mutations causing cancerous cells to form tumors, which can then spread through the lymphatic system or bloodstream, referred to as metastasis.  Complex (multifactorial) These disorders stem from a combination of gene mutations and other factors. They include chemical exposure, diet, certain medications and tobacco or alcohol use. Coronary Artery Disease is a condition characterized by plaque build-up in coronary arteries, leading to chest discomfort, angina, heart attacks, arrhythmia, and heart failure.  Complex (multifactorial) These disorders stem from a combination of gene mutations and other factors. They include chemical exposure, diet, certain medications and tobacco or alcohol use. Autism Spectrum Disorder is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by brain differences, causing individuals to exhibit unique behaviors, interactions, and learning styles. Other Conditions: Asthma Diabetes Single-gene (monogenic) This group of conditions occurs from a single gene mutation. Cystic Fibrosis is a genetic disease causing the buildup of thick mucus in organs like the lungs and pancreas, causing airway obstruction and difficulty breathing. Single-gene (monogenic) This group of conditions occurs from a single gene mutation. Duchene muscular dystrophy is associated with a mutation in the dystrophin gene and is characterized by profound muscle weakness, leading to respiratory failure and death. Single-gene (monogenic) This group of conditions occurs from a single gene mutation. Sickle Cell Disease is a genetic mutation that causes abnormal hemoglobin clumping in red blood cells, leading to blood flow blockages, anemia, pain, infections, and severe complications.  Common genetic and Sex-linked Abnormalities The X chromosome contains 867 genes responsible for various tissues, including bone, neural, blood, and retina. At least 533 disorders are linked to these genes, demonstrating X-linked inheritance, with a trait or disorder determined by a gene on the X chromosome, with males having a single copy more likely to be affected than females with two copies. Females with a second, non-mutated copy may experience milder or no symptoms.  X linked Recessive Inheritance 1. X-linked recessive inheritance occurs when a mutated gene on the X chromosome requires both copies of the gene to be affected in order for the trait or disorder to be expressed. Since males have only one X chromosome, they are more commonly affected by X-linked recessive disorders compared to females. X linked Dominant Inheritance 2. X-linked dominant inheritance occurs when a mutated gene on the X chromosome is sufficient to cause the expression of a trait or disorder, even if only one copy of the gene is affected. This means that both males and females can be affected, but the prevalence may differ due to the presence of two X chromosomes in females and one X chromosome in males. And so some of the more familiar sex-linked traits are: Hemophilia A Hemophilia A is a rare blood disorder that happens when your blood doesn’t clot as well as it should. People who have this condition don’t have enough of a certain blood protein (clotting factor) that helps make blood clot. Hemophilia A usually affects men and people assigned male at birth (AMAB), but can also affect women and people assigned female at birth (AFAB). And so some of the more familiar sex-linked traits are: Red-green color blindness Types of Red-Green Color Blindness: is a common trait that affects Protanopia – Red can’t be seen. at least 10% of men and only Deuteranopia – Green can’t be one percent of women. The red- seen. green color blindness happens Protanomaly – Some red is visible; green and blue are to people who can’t see shades normal. of red and green the same way Deuteranomaly – Some green is as people with normal color visible; red and blue are normal. perception do. And so some of the more familiar sex-linked traits are: Fragile-X syndrome is a chromosomal disorder characterized by a fragile site on the X chromosome, causing a significant decrease in mental ability, ranging from mild learning impairment to severe intellectual disability. And so some of the more familiar sex-linked traits are: Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease is a neurological disorder that damages peripheral nerves, which transmit information and signals from the brain and spinal cord to the body and sensory information like touch. It can also directly affect nerves controlling muscles. And so some of the more familiar sex-linked traits are: Fabry disease is characterized by the inability of the enzyme alpha-galactosidase-A to efficiently break down lipids into smaller components that provide energy to the body, these fats collect in blood vessels and tissues, raising the risk of heart attack, stroke and kidney failure. INFANCY STAGE 1. Physical development Early sensory capacities. A. Touch and pain- touch is seems the first sense to develop because the early sign is that when baby's cheek or lower lips is stroked with finger or nipple the head turns, mouth opens and then the sucking begins it occurs two months after conception by thirty- two weeks of gestation. B. Smell and taste - The sense of taste and smell also begin to develop in the womb, since the flavors and odors of food of an expectant mother consumes, May be transmitted to the fetus through the amniotic fluid. INFANCY STAGE 1. Physical development Early sensory capacities. C. Hearing - hearing too is functional before birth. Babies less than 3 days old respond differently to a story heard while in the womb than to others stories. Because they can tell their mothers voice from a stranger's and prefer their native language to a foreign tongue. 3. Sight- vision is the least developed since birth. Because the eyes of newborns are smaller than those adults, the retinal structures are incomplete and the optic nerve is undeveloped. INFANCY STAGE 2. Motor Development babies do not have to be taught such as basic motor skills such as grasping, crawling and walking. They just need a room to move and freedom to see what they can do. 3. Cognitive Development infancy is the sensorimotor stage, because according to jean piaget. During this stage ( birth to approximately age 2) infants learn about themselves and their world through their developing sensory and motor activity. EARLY CHILDHOOD STAGE 1. Physical development a) Aspect of Physical Development - Early childhood children rapidly grow, lose weight, sleep less, improve in physical activities, and develop hand coordination. b.) Bodily Growth and Change b.1 Between ages three and six, children grow rapidly, shedding their roundness and developing a slender, athletic appearance. Their body proportions gradually resemble those of an adult, with their potbelly tightening. b.2 Muscular and skeletal growth in children strengthens them, while the maturing brain and nervous system promote motor skills development. Increased respiratory and circulatory systems build physical stamina and maintain health. EARLY CHILDHOOD STAGE 2. Motor Development a.) Preschool children enhance gross motor c.) Fine motor skills, such as buttoning shirts and skills like running and jumping due to cerebral drawing pictures, involve eye-hand and small- cortex development, stronger bones, muscles, muscle coordination. Gain in this skills allows and lung capacity, enabling faster running, young children to take more responsibility for jumping, and climbing. their personal care b.) Children may vary in adeptness, depending on d.) As they develop motor skills, pre-schoolers their genetic endowment and their opportunities to continually merge abilities they already have with learn and practice motor skills. Physical those they are acquiring, to produce more complex development flourishes best in active, unstructured capabilities. Such combinations of skills are known free play. as system of action. EARLY CHILDHOOD STAGE 3. COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT a) Jean Piaget referred to early childhood as the preoperational stage of cognitive development, characterized by a significant expansion in symbolic thought or representational ability, which emerges after the sensorimotor stage. b.) Advances of Preoperational Thought. Advances in symbolic thought are accompanied by a growing understanding of space, causality, identities, categorization, and number. Some of these understandings have roots in infancy and toddlerhood; others begin to develop in early childhood but are not fully achieved until middle childhood.  COGNITIVE ADVANCES DURING EARLY CHILDHOOD ADVANCE SIGNIFICANCE EXAMPLE Children do not need to be in Simon asks his mother about the Use Symbols sensorimotor contact with an object, elephants they saw in their trip to the person, or event in order to think about it. circus several months earlier. Children can imagine that objects or Rolf pretends that a slice of apple is a people have properties other than those vacuum cleaner "vrooming" across the they actually have. kitchen table. Antonio knows that his teacher is dressed Understanding of Children are aware that superficial up as a pirate but is still his teacher alterations do not change the nature of Identities things. underneath the costume Understanding of Seeing a ball roll from behind a wall, Children realize that events have causes Aneko looked behind the wall for the Cause and Effect person who kicked the ball. Rosa sorts the pine cones she collected Children organize objects, people, and Ability to Classify on a nature walk into two piles according events into meaningful categories. to their size: "big" and "little."  COGNITIVE ADVANCES DURING EARLY CHILDHOOD ADVANCE SIGNIFICANCE EXAMPLE Children can count and deal with Lindsay shares some candy with her Understanding of Number quantities. friends, counting to make sure that each girls gets the same amount. Children become more able to imagine Emilio tries to comfort his friend when he Empathy how others might feel sees that his friend is upset Theory of Mind Children become more aware of mental Bianca wants to save some cookies for activity and the functioning of the herself so she hides them from her mind. brother in a pasta box. She knows her cookies wil be safe there because her brother will not look in a place where he doesn't expect to find cookies. EARLY CHILDHOOD STAGE 4. PYSCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT The Self Concept a.) The self-concept is our total image of ourselves. It also has a social component because it shapes children's self-image as they gain a better understanding of how others see them. b.) The picture of the self comes into focus in toddlerhood, as children develop self- awareness. Self-Esteem from a neo-Piagetian perspective, self-esteem is based on children's growing cognitive ability to describe and define themselves. EARLY CHILDHOOD STAGE 4. PYSCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT Understanding and Regulating Emotions 1. Children's social competence is enhanced by understanding and regulating their emotions, which helps guide their behavior, communicate feelings, and be sensitive to others' emotions. 2. Because early emotional experience occurs within the family, it should not be surprising that family relationships affect the development of emotional understanding of children. MIDDLE CHILDHOOD STAGE 1. Physical development A. GROWTH - Middle childhood growth slows significantly, but there is a noticeable difference between 6-year-olds and 11-year-olds. Children grow 2 to 3 inches each year and double their weight during this period. Girls retain more fatty tissue than boys, which persists into adulthood. 2. Motor Development Motor Development. Motor skills continue to improve in middle childhood. By this age, however, children in most non-literate and transitional societies go to work, and this plus more household labor, especially for girls, leaves them little time and freedom for physical play. MIDDLE CHILDHOOD STAGE 3. Cognitive Development Piaget's theory suggests that children reach the stage of concrete operations around age 7, where they can use mental operations like reasoning to solve real problems. They become less egocentric and consider multiple aspects of a situation, but still limited to immediate situations.  Advances in Selected Cognitive Abilities During Middle Childhood ABILITY EXAMPLES Daniel can use a map or model to help her search for a hidden object and can give someone Spatial Thinking else directions for finding the object. She can find her way to and from school, can estimate distances, and can judge how long it will take her to go from one place to another. Cause and Effect Douglas knows which physical attributes of objects on each side of a balance scale will affect the result (ie, number of objects matters but color does not). He does not yet know which spatial factors, such as position and placement of the objects, make a difference. Categorization Elena can sort objects into categories, such as shape, color or both. She knows that a subclass (roses) has fewer members than the class of which it is a part (flowers) Seriation and Catherine can arrange a group of sticks in order, from the shortest to the longest, and can insert an intermediate-size stick into the proper place. She knows that if one stick is longer Transitive Inference than a second stick, and the second stick is longer than a third, then the first stick is longer than the third Inductive and Dominic can solve both inductive and deductive problems and knows that inductive conclusions (based on particular premises) are less certain than deductive ones (based on Deductive Reasoning general premises). MIDDLE CHILDHOOD STAGE 4. PYSCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT a. Self-Concept Development: Around 7-8 y/o, children reach the third stage of neo- Piagetian self-concept development, where they form representational systems, which are conscious, realistic, balanced, and comprehensive self-concepts that integrate various aspects. b. Self-Esteem: b1. According to Erikson, a major determinant of self-esteem is children's view of their capacity for productive work. The issue to be resolved in middle childhood is industry versus inferiority. Children need to learn skills valued in their society. b2. Successful resolution of this stage of psychosocial development leads to competence, a view of mastering skills and completing tasks. Children compare their abilities with peers, and if they feel inadequate, they may retreat to family or become workaholics. MIDDLE CHILDHOOD STAGE 4. PYSCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT C.Emotional Growth and Prosocial Behavior c.1 As children grow older, they are more aware of their own and other people's feelings. They can better regulate their emotions and can respond to others' emotional distress. c.2 By age 7 or 8 children typically are aware of feeling shame and pride, and they have a clearer idea of the difference guilt and shame. These emotions affect their opinion of themselves. Children also can verbalize conflicting emotions. c.3 In middle childhood, children understand their culture's rules for emotional expression and learn the difference between having an emotion and expressing it. They understand what makes them angry, fearful, or sad and how others react to these emotions. Kindergartens believe parents can make a child less sad or afraid, while sixth graders understand that emotions may be suppressed but still exist. ADOLESCENCE: BECOMING AN ADULT 1. Physical development Adolescence is a developmental transition from childhood to adulthood, marked by physical, cognitive, and psychosocial changes. It typically begins with puberty, leading to sexual maturity and fertility, and is marked by rituals in many societies.. Puberty marks the end of childhood, characterized by rapid growth, body proportions, and sexual maturity, a complex process that begins before birth and continues into adulthood. 2. Cognitive Development Piaget's theory suggests that adolescents reach the highest level of cognitive development when they develop abstract thought, allowing them to manipulate information, understand historical time and space, learn algebra and calculus, appreciate metaphor and allegory, and think in terms of possibilities. This ability also has emotional implications, allowing adolescents to love freedom or hate exploitation. ADOLESCENCE: BECOMING AN ADULT PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT Erikson's theory of identity emphasizes that teenagers' cognitive development helps them construct a theory of the self, which is not a maturational malaise but a healthy process that builds on earlier achievements. The main task of adolescence is to confront identity confusion and form a unique adult with a coherent sense of self and a valued role in society. Identity issues arise during adolescence, but are rarely fully resolved. ADULTHOOD 1. Physical development Physical abilities peak by the mid-twenties, with athletes and women exhibiting early signs of decline. However, most people, especially those not requiring top physical performance, do not perceive these early signs. Physical decline accelerates during early and middle adulthood, and health and exercise habits play a significant role. Aging also brings a gradual decline in fertility, with women having lower chances of pregnancy and men experiencing andropause. While some may experience distress due to declining virility and physical capacities, most age is without such issues. 2. Cognitive Development Cognitive development continues throughout adulthood, with fluid intelligence peaking in the early 20s and declining by the late 80s, and crystallized intelligence improving until the late 30s and slowly declining, with different rates of decline. ADULTHOOD PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT Erikson's stages of adult life outline the challenges faced and the consequences of meeting them. In early adulthood, intimacy versus isolation is crucial for emotional development. Middle adulthood involves generativity versus stagnation, where meaning is found in activities like work, family, and religion. Generativity involves reaching out rather than being self-absorbed, while integrity vs despair is the late 60s and beyond stage. Successful adults navigate these stages, avoiding stagnation and focusing on meaningful endeavors. Those who see life as a collection of unmet goals may despair and withdraw, living out the remaining years. ADULTHOOD DEATH AND DYING 1. DENIAL 2. ANGER 3. BARGAINING 4. DEPRESSION 5. ACCEPTANCE  DENIAL individual strongly resist the idea of death by denying the validity of information about their illness.  ANGER after denial, the individual reacts about his/her impending death with anger.  BARGAINING after the two stages the individual who has illness realized that the death is coming but still can't accept it instead the person tries to bargain to prolong his/her life.  DEPRESSION eventually the realiaties of death leads to lose hope and bargains can't be possible the person starts to feel heavy leaving their love ones.  ACCEPTANCE in time when depression lifts the person will already achieved to accept death. YOU MUST KNOW: YOU CAN’T STOP DEATH IT IS PART OF LIFE THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVE  STAGE THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT 1.  STAGE THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT 1. Sensorimotor Stage of Cognitive Development During this earliest stage of cognitive development, infants and toddlers acquire knowledge through sensory experiences and manipulating objects. A child's entire experience at the earliest period of this stage occurs through basic reflexes, senses, and motor responses. Birth to 2 Years Major characteristics and developmental changes during this stage: Know the world through movements and sensations Learn about the world through basic actions such as sucking, grasping, looking, and listening Learn that things continue to exist even when they cannot be seen (object permanence) Realize that they are separate beings from the people and objects around them Realize that their actions can cause things to happen in the world around them  STAGE THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT 2. Preoperational Stage of Cognitive Development The foundations of language development may have been laid during the previous stage, but the emergence of language is one of the major hallmarks of the preoperational stage of development. 2 to 7 Years Major characteristics and developmental changes during this stage: Begin to think symbolically and learn to use words and pictures to represent objects Tend to be egocentric and struggle to see things from the perspective of others Getting better with language and thinking, but still tend to think in very concrete terms  STAGE THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT 3. Concrete Operational Stage of Cognitive Development While children are still very concrete and literal in their thinking at this point in development, they become much more adept at using logic.2 The egocentrism of the previous stage begins to disappear as kids become better at thinking about how other people might view a situation. 7 to 11 Years Major characteristics and developmental changes during this stage: Begin to think logically about concrete events Begin to understand the concept of conservation; that the amount of liquid in a short, wide cup is equal to that in a tall, skinny glass, for example Thinking becomes more logical and organized, but still very concrete Begin using inductive logic, or reasoning from specific information to a general principle  STAGE THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT 4. Formal Operational Stage of Cognitive Development The final stage of Piaget's theory involves an increase in logic, the ability to use deductive reasoning, and an understanding of abstract ideas. At this point, adolescents and young adults become capable of seeing multiple potential solutions to problems and think more scientifically about the world around them. Age 12 and Up Major characteristics and developmental changes during this time: Begins to think abstractly and reason about hypothetical problems Begins to think more about moral, philosophical, ethical, social, and political issues that require theoretical and abstract reasoning Begins to use deductive logic, or reasoning from a general principle to specific information  STAGE THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT 2.  STAGE THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT Vygotsky's Theory of Cognitive Development Sociocultural theory is all about the societal and cultural influences that affect how we develop, think, feel, and behave. This approach seeks to understand how these societal factors interact with individual ones to influence how people learn, develop, and grow.  STAGE THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT Vygotsky's Theory of Cognitive Development Psychologist Lev Vygotsky believed that parents, caregivers, peers, and the culture at large are responsible for developing the brain's higher-order functions. According to Vygotsky, human development relies on social interaction and, therefore, can differ among cultures.  STAGE THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT The Zone of Proximal Development the distance between the actual development level (of the learner) as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance, or in collaboration with more capable peers."  The Zone of Proximal Development As children are allowed to stretch their skills and knowledge, often by observing someone who is slightly more advanced than they are, they are able to progressively extend this zone. DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PIAGET AND VYGOTSKY  STAGE THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT 3.  STAGE THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development Kohlberg's theory of moral development is a theory that focuses on how children develop morality and moral reasoning. Kohlberg's theory suggests that moral development occurs in a series of six stages and that moral logic is primarily focused on seeking and maintaining justice.  Level 1. Preconventional Level At this age, children's decisions are primarily shaped by the expectations of adults and the consequences of breaking the rules. There are two stages within this level: Stage 1 (Avoiding Punishment): People at this stage see rules as fixed and absolute. Obeying the rules is important because it is a way to avoid punishment. Stage 2 (Aiming At a Reward): People account for individual points of view and judge actions based on how they serve individual needs. Reciprocity is possible at this point in moral development, but only if it serves one's own interests.  Level 2. Conventional Level This period also focuses on the acceptance of authority and conforming to the norms of the group. There are two stages at this level of morality: Stage 3 (Good Boy & Good Girl Attitude): This stage of the interpersonal relationship of moral development is focused on living up to social expectations and roles. There is an emphasis on conformity, being "nice," and consideration of how choices influence relationships. Stage 4 (Loyalty to Law and Order): This stage is focused on ensuring that social order is maintained. People begin to consider society as a whole when making judgments. The focus is on maintaining law and order by following the rules, doing one’s duty, and respecting authority.  Level 3. Postconventional Level At this level of moral development, people develop an understanding of abstract principles of morality. The two stages at this level are: Stage 5 (Justice and the Spirit of the Law): The ideas of a social contract and individual rights cause people in the next stage to begin to account for the differing values, opinions, and beliefs of other people. Rules of law are important for maintaining a society, but members of the society should agree upon these standards. Stage 6 (Universal Principles of Ethics): At this stage, people follow these internalized principles of justice, even if they conflict with laws and rules.  STAGE THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT 4. GILIGAN’S THEORY OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT  STAGE THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT GILIGAN’S THEORY OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT Gilligan's theory of moral development was created in response to the theory of moral development proposed by Lawrence Kohlberg, which she criticized for ignoring women's perspectives. Gilligan proposed that women come to prioritize an "ethics of care" as their sense of morality evolves along with their sense of self while men prioritize an "ethics of justice."  Preconventional Morality Moral judgment is entirely focused on the self and the need to survive. When a conflict arises between the needs of the self and the needs of others, a woman will choose to address her own needs. Transition 1 During the first transition from the Preconventional to the Conventional Level, the woman realizes that she has a responsibility to others. It is the first time that she realizes her previous moral perspective could be characterized as selfish.  Conventional Morality Moral judgment becomes concentrated on caring for others. The woman starts to see herself as a participant in society whose claim to being a good citizen relies on helping and protecting others. Transition 2 During the second transition from the Conventional to the Postconventional Level, the woman starts to experience tension between the needs of others and the needs of the self. She begins to realize she must strike a better balance between her needs and the needs of others. This leads to a shift in moral judgment away from "goodness" to "truth" as she starts to honestly assess her own desires, not just her responsibility to others.  Postconventional Morality Moral judgment is dictated by the principle of nonviolence. The needs of the self are just as important as the needs of others, which causes the woman to arrive at a universal ethic of care and concern. Adhering to the obligation of care while avoiding harm or exploitation to herself and others enables the woman to accept responsibility for her choices.4 Gilligan didn't identify specific ages when the levels of moral development would be reached. However, as Kohlberg did with his theory, she noted some women might not reach the highest level. She also observed that it wasn't life experience that pushed a woman to higher levels, but cognitive ability and changes in a woman's sense of self.  STAGE THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT 5.  STAGE THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT Erikson's Psychosocial Stage of Development Erikson's theory described the impact of social experience across the whole lifespan. Erikson was interested in how social interaction and relationships played a role in the development and growth of human beings. a. Basic Trust versus Mistrust (birth 12-18 months) — baby develops sense Virtue: Hope b. Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt (12-18 months to 3 years) — develops a balance of independence and self-sufficiency over shame and doubt Virtue: Will  Stage 1: Trust vs. Mistrust At this point in development, the child is utterly dependent upon adult caregivers for everything they need to survive including food, love, warmth, safety, and nurturing. I During the first stage of psychosocial development, children develop a sense of trust when caregivers provide reliability, care, and affection. A lack of this will lead to mistrust.  Stage 2: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt Children are just starting to gain a little independence. They are starting to perform basic actions on their own and making simple decisions about what they prefer. By allowing kids to make choices and gain control, parents and caregivers can help children develop Children need to develop a sense of personal control over physical skills and a sense of independence. Potty training plays an important role in helping children develop this sense of autonomy. Children who successfully complete this stage feel secure and confident, while those who do not are left with a sense of inadequacy and self-doubt.  Stage 3: Initiative vs. Guilt The third stage of psychosocial development takes place during the preschool years. At this point in psychosocial development, children begin to assert their power and control over the world through directing play and other social interactions. Children who are successful at this stage feel capable and able to lead others. Those who fail to acquire these skills are left with a sense of guilt, self-doubt, and lack of initiative. When an ideal balance of individual initiative and a willingness to work with others is achieved, the ego quality known as purpose emerges.  Stage 4: Industry vs. Inferiority The fourth psychosocial stage takes place during the early school years from approximately ages 5 to 11. Through social interactions, children begin to develop a sense of pride in their accomplishments and abilities. Children need to cope with new social and academic demands. Success leads to a sense of competence, while failure results in feelings of inferiority. Successfully finding a balance at this stage of psychosocial development leads to the strength known as competence, in which children develop a belief in their abilities to handle the tasks set before them.  Stage 5: Identity vs. Confusion This stage plays an essential role in developing a sense of personal identity which will continue to influence behavior and development for the rest of a person's life. Teens need to develop a sense of self and personal identity. Success leads to an ability to stay true to yourself, while failure leads to role confusion and a weak sense of self.  Stage 6: Intimacy vs. Isolation Young adults need to form intimate, loving relationships with other people. Success leads to strong relationships, while failure results in loneliness and isolation. This stage covers the period of early adulthood when people are exploring personal relationships. Successful resolution of this stage results in the virtue known as love. It is marked by the ability to form lasting, meaningful relationships with other people.  Stage 7: Generativity vs. Stagnation Adults need to create or nurture things that will outlast them, often by having children or creating a positive change that benefits other people. Success leads to feelings of usefulness and accomplishment, while failure results in shallow involvement in the world. Care is the virtue achieved when this stage is handled successfully. Being proud of your accomplishments, watching your children grow into adults, and developing a sense of unity with your life partner are important accomplishments of this stage.  Stage 8: Integrity vs. Despair The final psychosocial stage occurs during old age and is focused on reflecting back on life. At this point in development, people look back on the events of their lives and determine if they are happy with the life that they lived or if they regret the things they did or didn't do. Those who feel proud of their accomplishments will feel a sense of integrity. Successfully completing this phase means looking back with few regrets and a general feeling of satisfaction. These individuals will attain wisdom, even when confronting death.