Reviewer of Art Applications PDF

I. Introduction The skeletal system is composed of various tissues including bone, cartilage, dense connective tissue, epithelium, blood-forming tissues, adipose tissue, and nervous tissue. Each bone is considered an organ, and together they form the skeletal system. II. Function...

I. Introduction The skeletal system is composed of various tissues including bone, cartilage, dense connective tissue, epithelium, blood-forming tissues, adipose tissue, and nervous tissue. Each bone is considered an organ, and together they form the skeletal system. II. Functions of the Skeletal System 1. Support: Provides structural framework and attachment sites for muscles. 2. Protection: Shields internal organs with bony coverings. 3. Movement: Assists muscles in producing body movements. 4. Mineral Storage: Stores and releases minerals, particularly calcium and phosphorus. 5. Hemopoiesis: Blood cell formation occurs in the red marrow of bones. 6. Energy Storage: Yellow marrow serves as a site for triglyceride storage. III. Structure of Bone Long Bone Anatomy: Diaphysis: Shaft of the bone. Epiphyses: Ends of the bone that articulate with other bones. Metaphyses: Areas between the diaphysis and epiphyses. Articular Cartilage: Reduces friction at joints. Periosteum: Connective tissue covering that aids in growth and repair. Marrow Cavity: Contains yellow marrow. Endosteum: Lining of the medullary cavity. IV. Histology of Bone Tissue 1. Bone Cells: Osteogenic Cells: Precursor cells that develop into osteoblasts. Osteoblasts: Bone-building cells. Osteocytes: Mature bone cells that maintain bone tissue. Osteoclasts: Cells that break down bone tissue. 2. Matrix Composition: Inorganic salts (hydroxyapatite) and collagen fibers provide hardness and tensile strength. Bone can be categorized as compact or spongy based on the arrangement of the matrix. V. Blood and Nerve Supply of Bone Richly supplied with blood through periosteal and nutrient arteries. Veins accompany arteries to drain blood from bones. Nerves follow blood vessels into bone tissue. VI. Bone Formation 1. Osteogenesis/Ossification: Two types: Intramembranous Ossification: Bone forms from fibrous connective tissue (e.g., skull bones). Endochondral Ossification: Bone replaces hyaline cartilage (most bones of the body). 2. Growth: Length: Involves the epiphyseal plate with zones of cartilage. Thickness: Achieved through appositional growth at the periosteum. 3. Remodeling: Continuous process of replacing old bone with new bone. VII. Bone's Role in Calcium Homeostasis Bone acts as a reservoir for calcium. Hormonal Regulation: Parathyroid Hormone (PTH): Increases blood calcium levels. Calcitonin: Decreases blood calcium levels. VIII. Exercise and Bone Tissue Mechanical stress increases bone strength through mineral deposition and collagen production. Weight-bearing activities help maintain bone mass. IX. Aging and Bone Tissue Aging results in demineralization and decreased collagen production, leading to increased fracture risk and conditions like osteoporosis. X. Disorders: Homeostatic Imbalances 1. Osteoporosis: Decreased bone density and strength due to hormonal changes.  2. Rickets/Osteomalacia: Disorders characterized by improper calcification of bones. XI. Medical Terminology Familiarize yourself with the terminology related to skeletal tissue for better understanding. I. Introduction to the Skeletal System The skeletal system consists of bones, muscles, and joints, forming the musculoskeletal system. Understanding bone structure aids in locating organs and understanding muscle movements. II. Divisions of the Skeletal System 1. Axial Skeleton: Comprises 80 bones including: Skull Hyoid bone Vertebral column Sternum Ribs 2. Appendicular Skeleton: Comprises 126 bones including: Upper and lower extremities (limbs) Pectoral girdle Pelvic girdle III. Types of Bones Shapes: Long Short Flat Irregular Sesamoid Sutural Bones: Classified based on location. IV. Bone Surface Markings Depressions and Openings: Allow passage of soft tissue or form joints. Processes: Projections that help form joints or serve as attachment points for connective tissues. V. The Skull Composed of 22 bones, divided into: Cranial Bones: Protect the brain and support its structure. Facial Bones: Form the face structure and protect sensory organs. Key Features: Sutures: Immovable joints connecting skull bones. Paranasal Sinuses: Cavities that lighten the skull and resonate sound. VI. Vertebral Column Composed of 26 vertebrae, divided into five regions: Cervical (7) Thoracic (12) Lumbar (5) Sacral (5, fused) Coccygeal (4, fused) Functions include support and protection of the spinal cord. VII. Thorax Skeletal part consists of: Sternum Ribs (12 pairs) Thoracic vertebrae Protects thoracic and abdominal organs and supports upper limbs. VIII. Disorders and Homeostatic Imbalances 1. Herniated Disc: Protrusion of disc material causing nerve pressure. 2. Spina Bifida: Congenital defect due to incomplete closure of the vertebral column. 3. Osteoporosis: Decreased bone density leading to fractures. IX. Medical Terminology Familiarize with terms related to the skeletal system and its disorders for better comprehension. I. Introduction to the Appendicular Skeleton Definition: The appendicular skeleton includes the bones of the upper and lower limbs, as well as the shoulder (pectoral) and hip (pelvic) girdles. Function: Primarily facilitates movement and supports the body's weight. II. Pectoral (Shoulder) Girdle 1. Components: Clavicle (Collar Bone): Location: Lies horizontally above the first rib. Articulates with: Sternum and scapula. Clinical Note: Commonly fractured, it transmits mechanical forces from the upper limb to the trunk. Scapula (Shoulder Blade): Articulates with: Clavicle and humerus. Function: Provides attachment for muscles and allows a wide range of motion for the arm. III. Upper Limb (Extremity) 1. Composition: Each upper limb has 30 bones, including: Humerus: Longest bone of the upper limb. Articulates with: Scapula (proximal) and radius/ulna (distal). Ulna and Radius: Ulna: Medial aspect of the forearm. Radius: Lateral aspect (thumb side). Articulation: Both articulate with the humerus at the elbow. Carpals, Metacarpals, and Phalanges: Carpals: 8 bones forming the wrist.  Metacarpals: 5 bones in the palm. Phalanges: 14 bones in the fingers (3 in each finger, 2 in each thumb). Clinical Note: Boxer's fracture refers to a common injury of the metacarpals. IV. Pelvic (Hip) Girdle 1. Composition: Coxal Bones (Hip Bones): Composed of three bones at birth: ilium, pubis, and ischium. Acetabulum: Socket for the head of the femur, where the three bones fuse. Function: Provides strong support for the lower extremities and bears the body's weight. V. True and False Pelves 1. Pelvic Structure: Formed by the hip bones, sacrum, and coccyx. 2. Subdivisions: Greater (False) Pelvis: Superior part, supports abdominal organs. Lesser (True) Pelvis: Inferior part, encircles the pelvic cavity and is critical for childbirth. VI. Comparison of Female and Male Pelves Differences: Male pelvis: Generally larger and heavier, with larger joint surfaces. Female pelvis: Wider and has a larger pelvic outlet to facilitate childbirth. VII. Lower Limb (Extremity) 1. Composition: Each lower limb also consists of 30 bones, including: Femur: Largest and strongest bone in the body. Articulates with: Hip bone and tibia (not fibula).  Patella (Kneecap): Functions to protect the knee joint and improve leverage of the quadriceps tendon. Clinical Note: Commonly associated with patellofemoral stress syndrome in runners. Tibia and Fibula: Tibia: Medial, weight-bearing bone of the leg. Fibula: Lateral bone, does not bear weight but serves as a site for muscle attachment. Tarsals, Metatarsals, and Phalanges: Tarsals: 7 bones forming the ankle. Metatarsals: 5 bones in the foot. Phalanges: 14 bones in the toes (similar arrangement to fingers). Clinical Note: Metatarsals are frequently fractured. VIII. Arches of the Foot Function: Two nonrigid arches support body weight and provide leverage during walking. Clinical Conditions: Flatfoot and clawfoot arise from abnormal arch conditions. IX. Development of the Skeletal System 1. Ossification Processes: Intramembranous Ossification: Direct formation of bone from mesenchyme. Endochondral Ossification: Bone formation through replacement of hyaline cartilage. 2. Limb Development: Limb buds appear by the sixth I. Introduction to Joints Definition: A joint (articulation or arthrosis) is a point of contact between two or more bones, between cartilage and bones, or between teeth and bones. Study of Joints: The scientific study of joints is called arthrology. II. Joint Classification 1. Structural Classification: Fibrous Joints: No synovial cavity; bones held together by dense connective tissue. Types: Sutures: Immovable joints found in the skull. Syndesmoses: Slightly movable joints, e.g., distal tibiofibular joint. Gomphosis: Peg-in-socket joint, e.g., tooth in its socket. Cartilaginous Joints: No synovial cavity; bones connected by cartilage. Types: Synchondroses: Hyaline cartilage; no movement, e.g., epiphyseal plates. Symphyses: Fibrocartilage; allows slight movement, e.g., pubic symphysis. Synovial Joints: Have a synovial cavity; freely movable. Structure: Articular Cartilage: Covers bone ends to reduce friction. Articular Capsule: Surrounds the joint; composed of outer fibrous layer and inner synovial membrane. Synovial Fluid: Lubricates joints and nourishes cartilage. 2. Functional Classification: Synarthroses: Immovable joints. Amphiarthroses: Partially movable joints. Diarthroses: Freely movable joints. III. Types of Synovial Joints 1. Plantar Joints: Allow gliding movements (e.g., intercarpal joints). 2. Hinge Joints: Allow flexion and extension (e.g., elbow, knee). 3. Pivot Joints: Allow rotational movement (e.g., atlantoaxial joint). 4. Condyloid Joints: Allow flexion, extension, abduction, and adduction (e.g., wrist joint). 5. Saddle Joints: Allow similar movements as condyloid joints (e.g., thumb joint). 6. Ball-and-Socket Joints: Allow the greatest range of movement (e.g., shoulder and hip joints). IV. Movements at Synovial Joints 1. Gliding Movements: Flat bone surfaces slide over one another. 2. Angular Movements: Flexion: Decrease in angle. Extension: Increase in angle. Lateral Flexion: Side bending of the trunk. Hyperextension: Extension beyond the anatomical position. 3. Abduction and Adduction: Abduction: Movement away from the midline. Adduction: Movement toward the midline. 4. Circumduction: Circular movement of a limb. 5. Rotation: Bone revolves around its own axis (medial/lateral rotation). 6. Special Movements: Elevation: Upward movement. Depression: Downward movement. Protraction: Movement of a part forward. Retraction: Movement of a part backward. Inversion/Eversion: Movements of the foot. Dorsiflexion/Plantar Flexion: Movements of the ankle. Opposition: Movement of the thumb to touch other fingers. V. Clinical Connections 1. Torn Cartilage: Common in athletes, particularly in the knee; often requires arthroscopy for removal. 2. Sprains and Strains: Sprain: Stretching or tearing of ligaments. Strain: Stretching or tearing of muscles. 3. Bursitis: Inflammation of the bursae, often due to repetitive movement. 4. Arthritis: Inflammation of joints, includes osteoarthritis and rheumatoid arthritis. VI. Aging and Joints Effects: Decreased production of synovial fluid, thinning of articular cartilage, and loss of ligament flexibility due to aging and wear and tear. I. Muscle Contractions 1. Involuntary Contractions: Cramp: Definition: Painful spasmodic contraction of multiple muscle fibers. Causes: Inadequate blood flow. Overuse of muscles. Abnormal blood electrolyte levels. 2. Types of Muscle Tissue: Skeletal Muscle: Voluntary control, striated, and responsible for movement. Cardiac Muscle: Involuntary control, striated, and found in the heart. Smooth Muscle: Involuntary control, non-striated, and found in walls of hollow organs. II. Disorders of Muscle Tissue 1. Myasthenia Gravis: Definition: An autoimmune disorder characterized by great muscular weakness. Mechanism: Caused by antibodies directed against acetylcholine (ACh) receptors at the neuromuscular junction. Progression: More ACh receptors are affected as the disease progresses, leading to increased muscle weakness. 2. Muscular Dystrophy: Definition: A group of inherited muscle-destroying diseases. Characteristics: Degeneration of individual muscle fibers leads to progressive atrophy of skeletal muscle. Common Form: Duchenne muscular dystrophy, which may be treated with gene therapy to replace the responsible gene. 3. Myopathy: Definition: A disease or disorder of the skeletal muscle tissue itself. III. Regeneration of Muscle Tissue 1. Skeletal Muscle: Regeneration Capacity: Limited; skeletal muscle fibers cannot divide.  Growth: After the first year, growth is primarily due to the enlargement of existing cells rather than an increase in the number of fibers. Satellite Cells: Can derive new individual muscle cells, but their contribution is minimal. Fibrosis: Extensive repair results in fibrosis, where muscle fibers are replaced by scar tissue. 2. Cardiac Muscle: Regeneration Capacity: Cardiac muscle fibers cannot divide or regenerate. 3. Smooth Muscle: Regeneration Capacity: Limited capacity for division and regeneration, but more than cardiac muscle. IV. Aging and Muscle Tissue 1. Effects of Aging: Decreased levels of physical activity. Muscle strength declines; by age 85, it is roughly half of what it was at age 25. Increase in slow oxidative fibers, which may affect muscle performance and endurance. V. Summary of Key Points Muscle cramps can result from various factors, including inadequate blood flow and electrolyte imbalances. Myasthenia gravis and muscular dystrophy are significant disorders affecting muscle function. Regeneration of muscle tissue varies by type, with skeletal muscle having limited regenerative abilities, while cardiac muscle has none. Aging affects muscle strength and composition, leading to decreased physical activity and endurance. I. Introduction to the Muscular System Definition: The muscular system consists of skeletal muscles and associated connective tissues that facilitate movement.  Function: Skeletal muscles produce movement by exerting force on tendons, which pull on bones or other structures. II. How Skeletal Muscles Produce Movement 1. Muscle Attachment Sites: Origin: The attachment site on the stationary bone. Insertion: The attachment site on the movable bone. Action: When a muscle contracts, it draws one articulating bone toward the other. 2. Lever Systems: Definition: Bones act as levers and joints serve as fulcrums. Types of Levers: First-Class Lever (EFL): Fulcrum is between effort and load (e.g., neck extension). Second-Class Lever (FLE): Load is between fulcrum and effort (e.g., standing on tiptoes). Third-Class Lever (FEL): Effort is between fulcrum and load (e.g., bicep curl). 3. Fascicle Arrangement: Types of Arrangements: Parallel, fusiform, pennate, and circular. Impact: The arrangement affects the strength of contraction and range of motion. 4. Coordination Within Muscle Groups: Prime Mover (Agonist): Main muscle responsible for a movement. Antagonist: Opposes the action of the prime mover. Synergist: Assists the prime mover in performing an action. Fixator: Stabilizes the origin of the prime mover. III. How Skeletal Muscles Are Named Criteria for Naming: Location (e.g., pectoralis major) Size (e.g., gluteus maximus) Number of origins (e.g., biceps) Shape (e.g., deltoid) Direction of fibers (e.g., rectus abdominis) Origin and insertion (e.g., sternocleidomastoid) Muscle action (e.g., flexor) IV. Principal Skeletal Muscles 1. Facial Muscles: Orbicularis Oris: Closes and protrudes lips. Masseter: Closes the mouth. 2. Muscles of the Neck: Sternocleidomastoid: Tilts head forward. 3. Muscles of the Upper Limb: Biceps Brachii: Flexes and supinates forearm. Triceps Brachii: Extends forearm. 4. Muscles of the Lower Limb: Quadriceps Femoris: Flexes thigh and extends knee. Hamstrings: Flexes knee. 5. Muscles of the Trunk: Rectus Abdominis: Flexes vertebral column. Diaphragm: Pulls down on lungs for breathing. V. Disorders: Homeostatic Imbalances 1. Common Running Injuries: Knee injuries, Achilles tendon injuries, shin splints. Treatment: RICE (Rest, Ice, Compression, Elevation). 2. Compartment Syndrome: Definition: Increased pressure within a muscle compartment. Causes: Trauma, swelling, or bleeding. Outcome: Can lead to nerve damage and muscle contracture if untreated. 3. Tenosynovitis: Definition: Inflammation of the tendon sheath. Causes: Overuse, repetitive motion. I. Introduction to the Integumentary System Definition: The integumentary system comprises the skin and its accessory structures, including hair, nails, and glands. Functions: Protects the body’s physical and biochemical integrity. Regulates body temperature.  Provides sensory information about the environment. II. Structure of the Skin 1. Layers of the Skin: Epidermis: Superficial layer composed of epithelial tissue. Contains four principal cell types: Keratinocytes: Produce keratin for protection. Melanocytes: Produce melanin, affecting skin color and UV protection. Langerhans Cells: Involved in immune responses. Merkel Cells: Function in the sensation of touch. Layers of the Epidermis (from deepest to most superficial): Stratum Basale: Contains stem cells for new cell formation. Stratum Spinosum: Provides strength and flexibility. Stratum Granulosum: Marks the transition to dead cells. Stratum Lucidum: Present only in thick skin areas (palms and soles). Stratum Corneum: Outermost layer consisting of dead cells. Dermis: Composed of connective tissue with collagen and elastic fibers. Contains two layers: Papillary Layer: Areolar connective tissue with sensory receptors. Reticular Layer: Dense irregular connective tissue with glands and hair follicles. Subcutaneous Layer (Hypodermis): Not part of the skin; consists of areolar and adipose tissue. Functions in fat storage and blood vessel passage. III. Skin Color and Pigmentation Pigments: Melanin: Varies in color from yellow to black; produced by melanocytes. Hemoglobin: Contributes to skin color based on blood flow. Carotene: Affects skin color, especially in areas with thick skin. Conditions: Freckles: Localized accumulation of melanin. Albinism: Genetic inability to produce melanin. Vitiligo: Loss of melanocytes resulting in white patches. IV. Accessory Structures of the Skin 1. Hair: Composed of keratinized cells; includes a shaft, root, and follicle. Types of hair: Lanugo, Vellus, Terminal. Functions: Protection, heat retention, and sensory perception. 2. Glands: Sebaceous Glands: Produce sebum to lubricate skin and hair. Sweat Glands: Eccrine Glands: Regulate body temperature through sweat. Apocrine Glands: Located in specific areas; involved in scent production. Ceruminous Glands: Produce earwax (cerumen). 3. Nails: Protect the distal phalanx and enhance fine touch. Composed of hard keratinized cells. V. Functions of the Skin Thermoregulation: Maintains body temperature through sweat and blood flow adjustments. Protection: Acts as a barrier against pathogens, chemicals, and physical injuries. Sensation: Contains receptors for touch, pressure, pain, and temperature. Excretion and Absorption: Eliminates waste and absorbs certain substances. Vitamin D Synthesis: Activation of vitamin D precursor in response to UV light. VI. Disorders of the Integumentary System 1. Skin Cancer: Types: Basal cell carcinoma, squamous cell carcinoma, malignant melanoma. Risk factors: Sun exposure, skin type, family history. 2. Burns: Classified as first-degree, second-degree (partial thickness), and third-degree (full thickness). Severity assessed by depth, extent, and area affected. 3. Pressure Sores (Decubitus Ulcers): Caused by prolonged pressure leading to tissue damage. 4. Psoriasis: A chronic skin disorder characterized by rapid cell turnover and scaling. VII. Aging and the Integumentary System Effects: Thinning skin, decreased elasticity, slower healing, and loss of subcutaneous fat.  Cosmetic Treatments: Various treatments available to address aging signs, including topical Share New Continue GPT-4o