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Questions and Answers
What is the primary effect of calcitonin on blood calcium levels?
What is the primary effect of calcitonin on blood calcium levels?
Which type of bone is classified as a long bone?
Which type of bone is classified as a long bone?
What is the consequence of aging on bone tissue?
What is the consequence of aging on bone tissue?
Which structure is a part of the axial skeleton?
Which structure is a part of the axial skeleton?
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Which of the following conditions is characterized by improper calcification of bones?
Which of the following conditions is characterized by improper calcification of bones?
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What type of surface marking on a bone allows for the passage of soft tissues?
What type of surface marking on a bone allows for the passage of soft tissues?
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How many bones form the skull?
How many bones form the skull?
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Which region of the vertebral column contains the most vertebrae?
Which region of the vertebral column contains the most vertebrae?
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What primarily affects muscle endurance according to the increase in fiber types?
What primarily affects muscle endurance according to the increase in fiber types?
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What is the role of the antagonist muscle in movement?
What is the role of the antagonist muscle in movement?
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Which lever type is exemplified by standing on tiptoes?
Which lever type is exemplified by standing on tiptoes?
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How are muscle fibers arranged in a pennate muscle?
How are muscle fibers arranged in a pennate muscle?
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What is a common cause of muscle cramps?
What is a common cause of muscle cramps?
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Which muscle characteristic is used to name the muscle 'biceps'?
Which muscle characteristic is used to name the muscle 'biceps'?
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Which factor significantly affects muscle strength with aging?
Which factor significantly affects muscle strength with aging?
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What type of lever system is represented by neck extension?
What type of lever system is represented by neck extension?
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What is the primary function of the Orbicularis Oris muscle?
What is the primary function of the Orbicularis Oris muscle?
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Which muscle group is responsible for flexing the knee?
Which muscle group is responsible for flexing the knee?
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What is a common treatment method for running injuries?
What is a common treatment method for running injuries?
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What are Langerhans Cells primarily involved in?
What are Langerhans Cells primarily involved in?
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Which layer of the skin is composed of dead cells?
Which layer of the skin is composed of dead cells?
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What condition can arise from increased pressure within a muscle compartment?
What condition can arise from increased pressure within a muscle compartment?
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Which structure is NOT considered a part of the integumentary system?
Which structure is NOT considered a part of the integumentary system?
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Which layer of the dermis is primarily associated with sensory receptors?
Which layer of the dermis is primarily associated with sensory receptors?
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What type of tissue primarily composes the reticular layer of the skin?
What type of tissue primarily composes the reticular layer of the skin?
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Which pigment is primarily responsible for the color variations in skin?
Which pigment is primarily responsible for the color variations in skin?
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What is the primary function of eccrine sweat glands?
What is the primary function of eccrine sweat glands?
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Which type of skin cancer is considered the most aggressive?
Which type of skin cancer is considered the most aggressive?
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Which layer of the skin is NOT part of the skin structure but functions in fat storage?
Which layer of the skin is NOT part of the skin structure but functions in fat storage?
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What chronic skin disorder is characterized by rapid cell turnover and scaling?
What chronic skin disorder is characterized by rapid cell turnover and scaling?
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What happens to synovial fluid production as a person ages?
What happens to synovial fluid production as a person ages?
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What is the main role of the skin in thermoregulation?
What is the main role of the skin in thermoregulation?
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What condition is characterized by localized accumulation of melanin?
What condition is characterized by localized accumulation of melanin?
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Which of the following best describes a cramp?
Which of the following best describes a cramp?
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What is the primary characteristic of Duchenne muscular dystrophy?
What is the primary characteristic of Duchenne muscular dystrophy?
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How does aging affect muscle strength by age 85?
How does aging affect muscle strength by age 85?
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What is the mechanism behind Myasthenia Gravis?
What is the mechanism behind Myasthenia Gravis?
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What can satellite cells in skeletal muscle tissue do?
What can satellite cells in skeletal muscle tissue do?
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What is true about cardiac muscle fibers?
What is true about cardiac muscle fibers?
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Which of the following muscle types is characterized by involuntary control and non-striated structure?
Which of the following muscle types is characterized by involuntary control and non-striated structure?
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What defines the female pelvis compared to the male pelvis?
What defines the female pelvis compared to the male pelvis?
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Which bone of the lower limb is known as the largest and strongest?
Which bone of the lower limb is known as the largest and strongest?
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What condition is commonly associated with the patella?
What condition is commonly associated with the patella?
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Which of the following statements about the tibia and fibula is accurate?
Which of the following statements about the tibia and fibula is accurate?
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What is the function of the tarsals in the lower limb?
What is the function of the tarsals in the lower limb?
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What does intramembranous ossification involve?
What does intramembranous ossification involve?
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What are fibrous joints characterized by?
What are fibrous joints characterized by?
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Which of these is an example of a cartilaginous joint?
Which of these is an example of a cartilaginous joint?
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Study Notes
Introduction
- The skeletal system is composed of various tissues, including bone, cartilage, dense connective tissue, epithelium, blood-forming tissues, adipose tissue, and nervous tissue.
- Each bone is an organ, and together they form the skeletal system.
Functions of the Skeletal System
- Support: Provides a framework and attachment sites for muscles.
- Protection: Shields internal organs with bony coverings.
- Movement: Assists muscles in producing body movements.
- Mineral Storage: Stores and releases minerals (calcium and phosphorus).
- Hemopoiesis: Blood cell formation occurs in red marrow.
- Energy Storage: Yellow marrow stores triglycerides.
Structure of Bone
-
Long Bone Anatomy:
- Diaphysis: The shaft of the bone.
- Epiphyses: The ends of the bone, articulating with other bones.
- Metaphyses: Areas between the diaphysis and epiphyses.
- Periosteum: Connective tissue covering for growth and repair.
- Articular Cartilage: Reduces friction at joints.
- Marrow Cavity: Contains yellow marrow.
- Endosteum: Lining of the medullary cavity.
Histology of Bone Tissue
-
Bone Cells:
- Osteogenic Cells: Develop into osteoblasts.
- Osteoblasts: Bone-building cells.
- Osteocytes: Mature bone cells maintaining bone tissue.
- Osteoclasts: Cells that break down bone.
- Matrix Composition: Inorganic salts (hydroxyapatite) and collagen fibers provide hardness and tensile strength.
- Types: Compact or spongy, based on matrix arrangement.
Blood and Nerve Supply of Bone
- Richly supplied with blood through periosteal and nutrient arteries.
- Veins accompany arteries to drain blood from bones.
- Nerves follow blood vessels into bone tissue.
Bone Formation
-
Osteogenesis/Ossification: Two types:
- Intramembranous: Bone forms from fibrous connective tissue (e.g., skull bones).
- Endochondral: Bone replaces hyaline cartilage (most bones of the body).
-
Growth:
- Length: Through the epiphyseal plate.
- Thickness: Through appositional growth at the periosteum.
- Remodeling: Continuous replacement of old bone with new bone.
Bone's Role in Calcium Homeostasis
- Bone acts as a calcium reservoir.
-
Hormonal Regulation:
- Parathyroid Hormone (PTH): Increases blood calcium levels.
- Calcitonin: Decreases blood calcium levels.
Exercise and Bone Tissue
- Mechanical stress increases bone strength through mineral deposition and collagen production.
- Weight-bearing activities help maintain bone mass.
Aging and Bone Tissue
- Aging results in demineralization and decreased collagen production, increasing fracture risk and conditions like osteoporosis.
Medical Terminology
- Familiarize yourself with terminology related to skeletal tissue for better understanding.
Introduction to the Skeletal System
- The skeletal system is comprised of bones, muscles, and joints, forming the musculoskeletal system.
- Understanding bone structure aids in locating organs and understanding muscle movements.
Divisions of the Skeletal System
-
Axial Skeleton:
- Skull
- Hyoid bone
- Vertebral column
- Sternum
- Ribs
-
Appendicular Skeleton:
- Upper and lower extremities (limbs)
- Pectoral girdle
- Pelvic girdle
Types of Bones
- Based on their shape. Include: long, short, flat, irregular, sesamoid, and sutural.
Bone Surface Markings
- Depressions and openings allow passage of soft tissue or form joints.
- Processes help form joints or are attachment points for connective tissues.
The Skull
- Composed of 22 bones, divided into cranial and facial bones.
- Key features include sutures, immovable joints connecting skull bones, and paranasal sinuses.
Vertebral Column
- Composed of 26 vertebrae, divided into five regions (cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral, and coccygeal).
- Functions: Support and protection of the spinal cord.
Thorax
- Forms the skeletal part with sternum, ribs, and thoracic vertebrae.
- Protects thoracic and abdominal organs and supports upper limbs
Disorders and Homeostatic Imbalances
- Herniated Disc: Protrusion of disc material causing nerve pressure.
- Spina Bifida: Congenital defect due to incomplete closure of the vertebral column.
- Osteoporosis: Decreased bone density leading to fractures.
- Rickets/Osteomalacia: Disorders characterized by improper calcification of bones.
Introduction to the Appendicular Skeleton
- Definition: The appendicular skeleton includes bones of upper and lower limbs, shoulder (pectoral) and hip (pelvic) girdles.
- Function: Primarily facilitates movement.
Pectoral (Shoulder) Girdle
- Components: Clavicle and scapula.
- Function: Provides attachment for muscles, allowing wide range of motion for the arm
Upper Limb (Extremity)
- Composition: Includes humerus, ulna, radius, carpals, metacarpals, and phalanges.
Pelvic (Hip) Girdle
- Composition: Coxal bones (ilium, pubis, and ischium) fused.
- Function: Supports lower extremities and bears body weight.
True and False Pelves
- Pelvic Structure: Formed by the hip bones, sacrum, and coccyx
- Subdivisions: Greater and lesser pelvis.
Comparison of Female and Male Pelves
- Differences in size and shape, related to childbirth.
Lower Limb (Extremity)
- Composition: Includes femur, patella, tibia, fibula, tarsals, metatarsals, and phalanges
- Function: Supports weight and provides leverage for movement
Arches of the foot
- Function: Support weight and provide leverage during walking.
- Clinical Conditions: Flatfoot and clawfoot.
Development of the Skeletal System
- Ossification Processes: Intramembranous and endochondral
- Limb Development: Limb buds
Introduction to Joints
- Definition: A point of contact between two or more bones, cartilage, or teeth.
- Study of Joints: Arthrology
Joint Classification
- Structural: Fibrous (sutures, syndesmoses, gomphosis), cartilaginous (synchondroses, symphyses), and synovial.
- Functional: Synarthroses (immovable), amphiarthroses (partially movable), diarthroses (freely movable).
Movements at Synovial Joints
- Gliding, angular (flexion, extension, hyperextension, abduction, adduction, circumduction, rotation), and special movements (elevation, depression, protraction, retraction, inversion, eversion, dorsiflexion/plantar flexion, opposition).
Clinical Connections
- Torn cartilage, sprains, strains, bursitis, and arthritis.
Aging and Joints
- Effects of decreased production of synovial fluid, thinning of articular cartilage and loss of ligament flexibility.
Muscle Contractions
- Involuntary contractions (cramps).
- Causes include inadequate blood flow, overuse, or abnormal electrolyte levels.
- Types of muscle tissue ( skeletal, cardiac, smooth)
Disorders of Muscle Tissue
- Myasthenia Gravis: Autoimmune disorder causing muscle weakness.
- Muscular Dystrophy: Group of inherited muscle-destroying diseases.
- Myopathy: Disease or disorder of skeletal muscle tissue.
Regeneration of Muscle Tissue
- Skeletal muscle fiber regeneration is limited.
Aging and Muscle Tissue
- Effects of aging on muscle strength, fiber type, and endurance.
Summary of Key Points
- Muscle cramps, myasthenia gravis, muscular dystrophy, regenerations, aging effects on muscles.
Introduction to the Muscular System
- Definition: The muscular system is comprised of skeletal muscles and associated connective tissues for movement.
How Skeletal Muscles Produce Movement
- Muscle attachment sites (origin, insertion).
- Lever systems (first, second, third class levers) and types.
- Fascicle arrangements (parallel, fusiform, pennate, circular).
- Coordination within muscle groups (prime mover, antagonist, synergist, and fixator).
How Skeletal Muscles Are Named
- Criteria used for naming muscles (location, size, number of origins, shape, direction of fibers, origin and insertion, muscle action).
Principal Skeletal Muscles
- Specific muscles with their functions include facial, neck, upper limb, lower limb, and trunk muscles.
Disorders: Homeostatic Imbalances
- Common running injuries, compartment syndrome, and tenosynovitis.
Introduction to the Integumentary System
- Definition: The integumentary system is comprised of skin and accessory structures (hair, nails, glands).
- Functions include protection, thermoregulation, sensation, excretion, and Vitamin D synthesis
Structure of the Skin
- Layers (epidermis and dermis).
- Cells and structures in each layer (keratinocytes, melanocytes, Langerhans cells, Merkel cells, stratum corneum, stratum lucidum, stratum granulosum, stratum spinosum, and stratum basale).
- Dermis composition: Connective tissue, collagen, elastic fibers.
Skin Color and Pigmentation
- Pigments: Melanins, Hemoglobin, Carotene.
- Conditions: Freckles, albinism, and vitiligo.
- Accessory structures, glands, hair, and nails.
Functions of the Skin
- Thermoregulation
- Protection
- Sensation
- Excretion and absorption
- Vitamin D synthesis
Disorders of the Integumentary System
- Skin cancer (types), burns (degrees), pressure sores (decubitus ulcers), and psoriasis
Aging and the Integumentary System
- Effects: Thinning skin, decreased elasticity, slower healing, loss of subcutaneous fat.
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