Human Skeletal System Study Notes PDF

Here are some detailed study notes on the human skeletal system and anatomical terminology, based on the provided source material: Chapter 5: The Skeletal and Articular Systems ​ Anatomical Position: This is the standard reference point for describing the location and relationships of...

Here are some detailed study notes on the human skeletal system and anatomical terminology, based on the provided source material: Chapter 5: The Skeletal and Articular Systems ​ Anatomical Position: This is the standard reference point for describing the location and relationships of body parts. It involves standing upright, facing forward, with feet together, arms slightly out to the side, and palms facing forward. ​ Anatomical Terms: ○​ Anterior/Posterior: Anterior refers to the front of the body, while posterior refers to the back. For example, the sternum is anterior to the heart. ○​ Superior/Inferior: Superior denotes a position above, while inferior denotes a position below.. ○​ Medial/Lateral: Medial signifies closer to the midline of the body, while lateral signifies further away from the midline.. ○​ Proximal/Distal: Proximal indicates closer to the point of attachment of a limb to the body, while distal indicates further away.. ​ Anatomical Planes: ○​ Frontal (Coronal) Plane: This vertical plane divides the body into anterior and posterior sections. ○​ Transverse (Horizontal) Plane: This horizontal plane divides the body into upper and lower segments. ○​ Sagittal (Median) Plane: This vertical plane divides the body into left and right halves. ​ Anatomical Axes: ○​ Horizontal Axis: Extends from side to side ○​ Longitudinal (Polar) Axis: Runs vertically, from head to toe, ○​ Antero-posterior Axis: Extends from front to back, ○​ General Rule of Movement: Body movements are described in terms of the anatomical plane they occur in and the axis around which they rotate. The axis of rotation is always perpendicular to the plane of movement. ​ Types of Movement: ○​ Flexion/Extension: Flexion is bending a joint to decrease the angle, while extension is straightening it to increase the angle. ○​ Abduction/Adduction: Abduction is moving a limb away from the midline, while adduction is moving it towards the midline. ○​ Plantar Flexion/Dorsiflexion: Specific to the ankle, plantar flexion points the toes downwards, while dorsiflexion brings the foot closer to the shin. ○​ Supination/Pronation: Supination rotates the forearm so the palm faces forward, while pronation rotates it so the palm faces back. ○​ Inversion/Eversion: Specific to the ankle, inversion turns the sole inwards, while eversion turns it outwards. ○​ External/Internal Rotation: External rotation twists a body part outwards from the midline, while internal rotation twists it inwards.  ○​ Elevation/Depression: Elevation raises a body part, while depression lowers it. ○​ Circumduction: A circular movement combining flexion, extension, abduction, and adduction. ​ The Skeletal System: ○​ Function: Provides support, protects organs, enables movement, stores minerals, and produces blood cells. ○​ Composition: The adult skeleton has 206 bones, ​ Bone Classification (by Shape): ○​ Long Bones: Found in limbs, e.g., femur. ○​ Short Bones: Found in wrists and ankles, e.g., carpals. ○​ Flat Bones: Thin and flat, e.g., skull bones. ○​ Irregular Bones: Varied shapes, e.g., vertebrae. ○​ Sesamoid Bones: Small bones within tendons, e.g., patella. ​ Bone Injuries and Disease: ○​ Fractures: Breaks in bones, often caused by trauma. ○​ Stress Fractures: Small cracks in bones due to overuse. ○​ Shin Splints: Pain in the tibia, often from overuse. ○​ Osteoporosis: Weakening of bones due to low bone mass. These notes cover the key concepts and terminology related to the human skeletal system and anatomical descriptions. Remember to refer to the original source material for further details and illustrations. Chapter 5: The Skeletal and Articular Systems ​ The adult human skeleton has 206 bones. ​ The skeletal system provides structural support, protects organs, acts as a growth centre for cells, and is a mineral reserve. ​ The skeleton is divided into the axial (skull, spine, ribcage) and appendicular (limbs) skeletons. ​ Bone landmarks are ridges, bumps, and other features on the surface of bones. ​ Common bone injuries: fractures, stress fractures, shin splints, and osteoporosis. ​ Joints are classified by structure (fibrous, cartilaginous, synovial) and function (type and extent of movement). ​ Synovial joints allow movement and have features like articular cartilage, joint capsule, joint cavity, bursae, and ligaments. ​ Types of synovial joints: ​ Ball-and-socket: Hip ​ , gliding: ankle ​ Hinge: Spine  ​ Pivot: neck ​ Saddle: thumb ​ Ellipsoid: wrist Chapter 6: The Muscular System ​ The musculoskeletal system comprises bones, joints, and muscles, allowing support, stability, and movement. ​ Types of muscle tissue: smooth, cardiac, and skeletal. ​ Functions of the musculoskeletal system: support, movement, protection of organs, and storage of calcium and phosphorus. ​ Types of muscle contraction: concentric(inward movement), eccentric(outward movement), and isometric(force with no movement. ​ Muscles are named based on action, location, shape, fibre direction, number of divisions, or attachment points. ​ Skeletal muscles are arranged in opposing pairs: the agonist (prime mover) and the antagonist which relaxes when agonist contracts. ​ Muscle contraction causes movement as the muscle pulls on the bones via tendons. ​ Types of control: Voluntary and involuntary(cardiac) Chapter 7: Energy Systems and Physical Activity ​ Nutrients are substances from food used for energy, cellular activities, and tissue building/repair. ​ Key energy nutrients: carbohydrates, protein, and fats. ​ ATP (adenosine triphosphate) is the universal energy molecule for all living things. ​ Two energy systems: anaerobic (without oxygen) and aerobic (with oxygen). ​ ​ Three metabolic pathways: ○​ ATP-PC (anaerobic alactic): quick, intense bursts of energy (10-15 seconds), no lactic acid produced. ○​ Glycolysis (anaerobic lactic): longer bursts of energy (90 seconds), lactic acid produced. ○​ Cellular respiration (aerobic): main energy source for endurance, complete breakdown of glucose, high ATP yield. ​ Muscle fibre types: ○​ Slow-twitch: red, slow tension generation, fatigue-resistant, aerobic. ○​ Fast-twitch: pale, fast tension generation, powerful but low endurance. ○​ Type I (slow-oxidative): slow energy, fatigue-resistant, aerobic. ○​ Type IIA (fast-oxidative glycolytic): high-speed energy and glycolytic capacity. ○​ Type IIB (fast-glycolytic): quick contraction without oxygen. ​ Athletic performance is influenced by muscle fibre type composition. Chapter 8: The Cardiovascular and Respiratory Systems ​ The heart acts as a double pump: ○​ Pulmonary circulation: pumps deoxygenated blood to the lungs. ○​ Systemic circulation: pumps oxygenated blood to the body. ​ Skeletal muscle pump aids in venous blood return. ​ Cardiac cycle: diastole (relaxation/filling) and systole (contraction/ejection). ​ Blood pressure: ○​ Systolic: maximum pressure during ventricular contraction. over ○​ Diastolic: minimum pressure during ventricular relaxation. ​ Heart's electrical conduction system: ○​ Sinoatrial node (SA node): pacemaker, initiates electrical signals. ○​ Atrioventricular node (AV node): transmits signals from atria to ventricles. ​ Bradycardia: slow heart rate (athletic). Tachycardia: fast heart rate. ​ Exercise increases cardiac output, blood pressure, blood flow distribution, and oxygen consumption. ​ Coronary circulation: supplies blood to the heart muscle. ​ Atherosclerosis: narrowing of coronary arteries due to plaque buildup. ​ Risk factors for coronary artery disease: poor diet, smoking, high blood lipids, hypertension, family history, and physical inactivity. ​ Respiratory system functions: supply oxygen, remove CO2, regulate blood pH. ​ External respiration: gas exchange in the lungs. Internal respiration: gas exchange at the tissue level. ​ ​ ​ Respiratory system zones: ○​ Conductive zone: transports air to the lungs. ○​ Respiratory zone: where gas exchange occurs (alveoli). ​ Breathing (ventilation): inspiration (active) and expiration (passive or active). ​ Control of breathing: influenced by oxygen needs, metabolic processes, muscle activity, and CO2 levels. ​ Gas exchange: occurs by diffusion across the thin walls of alveoli and capillaries. ​ Oxygen transport: oxygen absorbed in lungs and carried to tissues. CO2 transport: CO2 moved from blood to alveoli and exhaled. ​ Oxygen deficit: occurs during the transition from rest to exercise.amount of O2 needed vs amount of O2 consumed ​ VO2max: maximum oxygen uptake.max O2 used when exercizing ​ Exercise adaptations: cardiovascular, respiratory, and metabolic improvements. ​ Respiratory diseases: asthma(narrowing of airways) and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD).(restriced breathing caused by inflamation and scarring Chapter 9: Human Growth and Development ​ Four components of human growth and development: physical, cognitive, social, and emotional. ​ Stages of development: ○​ Infancy/toddler (birth to 2-3 years): most significant growth. ○​ Childhood (4 to 10 years): motor skill development. ○​ Puberty/adolescence (11 to 17 years): rapid growth, hormonal changes. ○​ Adulthood (18+ years): changes in weight, oxygen capacity, cardiovascular function, and joints. ​ Different meanings of "age": chronological, skeletal, and developmental age. ​ Physical growth and development: involves muscles, bones, energy systems, and nervous system. ​ Growth occurs in spurts and varies between individuals and genders.. ​ Factors affecting physical growth: ○​ Glandular and hormonal activity: endocrine system regulates growth and development. ○​ Heredity: genetic factors influence height, body type, and other traits. ○​ Nutrition and diet: essential for healthy growth. ○​ Physical activity: promotes bone density and overall development. ○​ Sociocultural factors: influence lifestyle choices and opportunities. Chapter 10: Motor Learning and Skill Acquisition ​ Motor learning: developing the ability to perform a task through physical and psychological factors. ​ Stages of motor learning: ○​ Cognitive stage: understanding the task. ○​ Associative stage: refining the movement. ○​ Autonomous stage: skilled and automatic performance. ​ Fundamental movement skills (FMS): foundation for physical literacy. ​ Categories of FMS: stability (balance), locomotion (travelling), and manipulation (object control). ​ Long-Term Athlete Development (LTAD) model: emphasizes FMS development in early stages. ​ Skill acquisition: analyzing movement skills to improve performance. ​ Phases of movement: preparation, execution, and follow-through. ​ Feedback: essential for skill improvement.  ​ Types of feedback: ○​ Knowledge of performance (KP): feedback on the movement itself. ○​ Knowledge of results (KR): feedback on the outcome. ​ Sport psychology: study of mental processes in sports. ​ Psychological skills training: tools to enhance athletic performance. ​ Mental skills: goal setting, imagery/visualization, relaxation/arousal regulation, motivation, concentration, and coping strategies. ​ Mental fitness is crucial for Long-Term Athlete Development. Chapter 11: Biomechanical Theory and Concepts ​ Biomechanics: study of human movement under the influence of forces. ​ Force: a push or a pull, measured in Newtons (N). ​ External forces: originate outside the body (e.g., gravity). ​ Internal forces: originate inside the body (e.g., muscle contraction). ​ Newton's laws of motion: ○​ Law of inertia: a body at rest stays at rest, and a body in motion stays in motion unless acted upon by a force. ○​ Law of acceleration: force equals mass times acceleration (F = ma). ○​ Law of action-reaction: for every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction. ​ Statics: study of bodies at rest or in constant motion. ​ Dynamics: study of bodies in motion with changing velocity. Chapter 12: The Seven Principles of Biomechanics ​ Principle 1: Stability: affected by mass, centre of mass, base of support, and position of centre of mass. ​ Principle 2: Production of Maximum Force: requires use of all contributing joint movements. ​ Principle 3: Production of Maximum Velocity: use joints in order from largest to smallest. ​ Principle 4: Impulse-Momentum Relationship: impulse (force x time) equals change in momentum (mass x velocity). ​ Principle 5: Direction of Application of the Applied Force: movement occurs opposite to the applied force. ​ Principle 6: Production of Angular Motion (Torque): torque is the turning effect of a force. ​ Principle 7: Conservation of Angular Momentum: angular momentum remains constant when airborne.  WORK= Force x Distance POWER=work/time Chapter 14: Nutrition for Human Performance ​ Macronutrients: carbohydrates, proteins, and fats; provide energy. ​ Micronutrients: vitamins and minerals; support metabolic processes. ​ Carbohydrates: ○​ Simple carbohydrates: sugars, digested quickly. ○​ Complex carbohydrates: starches, digested slowly. ​ Glycemic index: measures how food affects blood sugar levels. ​ Proteins: essential for tissue building and repair, composed of amino acids. ​ Fats: ○​ Unsaturated fats: healthy fats. ○​ Saturated and trans fats: unhealthy fats. ​ Trans fats: worst type of dietary fat, formed by hydrogenation. ​ Saturated fats: linked to heart disease. ​ Canada's Food Guide: recommendations for healthy eating. ​ Nutrition Facts table: provides information on serving size, calories, and nutrients. ​ % Daily Value: indicates the percentage of daily nutrient intake provided by a serving. ​ Energy balance: energy intake should match energy expenditure. ​ Energy equation: energy storage = energy intake - energy output. ​ Calories: units of energy provided by food. ​ Daily caloric need: affected by basal metabolic rate, activity level, and digestion.