History of Psychology Review Test 1 PDF

History of Psychology ===================== Review for Exam 1 (Chapters 1-4) ================================ ***Definitions*** Determinism: everything that occurs is a function of a finite number of causes and that, if these causes were known, an event could be predicted with complete accura...

History of Psychology ===================== Review for Exam 1 (Chapters 1-4) ================================ ***Definitions*** Determinism: everything that occurs is a function of a finite number of causes and that, if these causes were known, an event could be predicted with complete accuracy. (cause and effect) principle of falsifiability: for a theory or hypothesis to be considered scientifically valid, it must be inherently testable and capable of being proven false. paradigm: a common set of assumptions and beliefs shared by researchers, which dictate what is a problem and how to study it normal science: regular, ongoing work of scientists within an established framework or paradigm. Anomalies: observations or findings that cannot be explained by the current scientific theory or framework. Epiphenomenalism: suggests mental states, such as thoughts and feelings, are the byproducts (or epiphenomena) of physical processes in the brain. self-awareness: stimulating our own mind and body theory of mind: creating a stimulation of what someone is like. Stimulating others' minds Mechanism: belief that natural phenomena can be explained by physical processes and the laws of nature, similar to how a machine operates. epistemology: examines how individuals acquire knowledge, the nature of that knowledge, and the justification for believing something to be true. Laws of association: principles that explain how people learn and remember things. Zeitgeist: the cultural, intellectual, social, and emotional climate or ethos of a specific era. Physis: intrinsic, essential nature of things and their capacity for growth, change, and self expression. scala naturae: Latin for ladder of nature or scale of being. Hierarchical structure in which all living and non-living entities are ranked based on their complexity, perfection, or proximity to the divine. hierarchy of souls: Aristotle's definition that categorizes living beings based on the types of souls they possess, which correspond to their levels of functionality and complexity. theory of forms: Plato's philosophy that posits the existence of eternal, unchanging, and perfect abstract entities or \"Forms\" (also known as Ideas) that serve as the true reality and the basis for all objects and concepts in the material world. Parsimony: emphasizes simplicity when explaining phenomena or forming theories. It suggests that, when faced with multiple explanations or hypotheses, the one that requires the fewest assumptions and is the most straightforward is generally preferred. Occam's Razor**:** *\"Entities should not* *be multiplied beyond necessity.\"*In simpler terms**,** the simplest explanation that requires the fewest assumptions is usually the best one. It is used as a problem-solving rule to prefer straightforward solutions over complex or speculative ones positivism: knowledge is only valid if it is derived from sensory experience, empirical evidence, and logical or mathematical reasoning. ======================================================================================================================================== inductive vs. deductive reasoning: **Inductive reasoning** moves from specific observations to general conclusions, making probabilistic inferences. **Deductive reasoning** starts with general principles and moves to specific conclusions, providing certainty if the premises are true. ============================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================ **Chapter 1---Introduction** - How are humans similar yet different from other animals? thinking abilities, understanding behavior, language, empathy, innovative, approach to life, ability to reason, and self-awareness. - Describe some of the ways that our mind simulates ourselves and the world around us. Theory of mind - Our ancestors' minds appeared to have changed dramatically around 50-100 thousand years ago. How did they change and what evidence do we have of that change? They developed consciousness, theory of mind, mental time travel, and self-awareness. We know this because of the development of stone tools and how they were built to be able to get the best use out of them. The development of jewelry showed this too because of the theory that it was created for expression and attraction from others. Paintings also showed this because the purpose of paintings could relate most to mental time travel to pass down stories to future generations. - What is science? What are the roots of science? How did it improve our ability to find truth? What are its limitations? Science is a tool, a method, and a set of assumptions. It is also a method for identifying lawful relationships. Science is subjective. - What are paradigms and how do they both guide and limit science? Paradigms are common sets of assumptions and beliefs shared by researchers that dictate what a problem is and how to study it. - What are some of the persistent questions in psychology? How do these relate to the idea of paradigms? What is the nature of human nature? How are the mind and body related? Nature vs. Nurture? Rationalism vs. irrationalism? How are humans and nonhumans related? Objective vs. subjective reality? The problem of the self? Universalism vs. relativism? - What is the mind-body problem? What are some of the historical roots of this issue? Mind and body are not separate. **Chapter 2---The Ancient World** - Who were the first philosophers? How did humans think before philosophy? Why do text books typically begin philosophy with the ancient Greeks? Thales, Heraclitus, Socrates, Plato, Aristotle and Pythagoras. Before philosophy, humans used religion and practical survival needs. It begins with ancient greeks because they were the first to use reason, logic, and critical inquiry. - What are some factors that led to the Greek zeitgeist?: questioning of traditional beleifs - What do Pythagoras and Plato say about the origin of knowledge? What is their reasoning behind this? How does this influence our thoughts about the mind, soul, and body?: Pythagoras said knowledge was harmony and order. Mathematics was central to his philosophy. Plato said knowledge was the existence of eternal, unchanging, and perfect abstract entities or \"Forms\" (also known as Ideas) that serve as the true reality and the basis for all objects and concepts in the material world. - What did Psychology gain from the Greek paradigm? Theories of the soul (rational, spirited, and appetitive), perception, memory, and thought, and critical inquiry. - How did Aristotle view causality? To fully understand something, all causes need to be known. Material, form, efficient cause, and final cause. **Chapter 3---Rome and the Middle Ages** - How (and why) did philosophy change after the Romans invaded Greece? Focus on ethics and practicality. Integration with Roman religion and politics. - How did Neo-Platonism provide a philosophical basis for early Christianity? One is the ultimate. All existence comes from the one. Neoplatonists viewed the material world as lesser, which emphasized spiritual over material. - What are some of the ways that Christianity influence the philosophy that psychology evolves out of? Emphasis on the soul, compassion, humility, forgiveness, and free will. - What are the Dark Ages; how did Christianity, at this time, limit the search for truth? The dark ages were a period of social, cultural, and economic decline following the fall of the Roman empire. Christianity limited the search for truth because it prioritized faith over reason. - How did the Crusades help to end the Dark Ages? Intellectual growth - What is scholasticism and how did it both protect and not protect Christians from new ideas? Scholasticism was a medieval system that used reason to understand Christian faith. It protected Christians by reinforcing their beliefs through logic but also limited intellectual freedom by restricting ideas that challenged Church teachings. **Chapter 4---Renaissance Science & Philosophy** - What is the renaissance? What are the converging forces that led to this rebirth? a cultural, intellectual, and artistic revival that emphasized the rediscovery of classical Greek and Roman knowledge. It marked a shift from medieval thinking to a focus on humanism, individualism, and scientific exploration. The crusades led to this rebirth. - What are the parallels between the zeitgeist of the ancient Greeks and the European Renaissance? The parallels between the zeitgeist of the ancient Greeks and the European Renaissance include a shared focus on humanism, the celebration of human potential, and the emphasis on reason, individualism, and the pursuit of knowledge. - How does the Protestant Reformation relate to individualism? emphasized individualism by promoting the idea that people could have a direct relationship with God, without the need for intermediaries like the Catholic Church. It encouraged personal interpretation of the Bible, undermining the authority of the clergy and church institutions. - Why were the early Protestants anti-Aristotle? They believed that Aristotle\'s emphasis on logic and natural reason could undermine the centrality of scripture and faith, which were foundational to their reformist goals. - Why was the printing press so important to the Protestant Reformation? it allowed for the mass production and widespread distribution of books, including Martin Luther's 95 Theses and the Bible in vernacular languages. This enabled reformist ideas to reach a broad audience quickly, challenging the authority of the Catholic Church and promoting religious and intellectual freedom. - How did Galileo's experiments and observations relate to Aristotle? How does this relate to Christian dogma at the time? Galileo's experiments and observations, particularly his support for the heliocentric model (the idea that the Earth orbits the Sun), contradicted Aristotle's geocentric view (that the Earth was the center of the universe). Aristotle's teachings had been widely accepted by the Catholic Church, and Galileo\'s findings challenged both Aristotelian physics and Christian dogma, which interpreted the Bible as supporting a geocentric universe. - What are primary and secondary qualities? What are the implications for Psychology? Primary qualities are the inherent characteristics of an object, such as size, shape, and motion, which exist independently of perception. Secondary qualities are characteristics like color, taste, and sound, which depend on the observer\'s perception. In psychology, this distinction raises questions about how we perceive and understand the world, highlighting the difference between objective reality (primary qualities) and subjective experience (secondary qualities). - What was Francis Bacon's view of science and its potential biases? Francis Bacon championed the empirical method and believed that science should be based on observation, experimentation, and inductive reasoning, rather than relying on preconceived theories or ancient authorities.