Pages from H&C the book1 PDF

Part II Chapter 3 The Great Philosophers of Europe What is Philosophy? Defining Philosophy is not easy. Part of what makes it difficult to find a consensus among philosophers about the definition of their discipline is precisely that they have frequently come to it...

Part II Chapter 3 The Great Philosophers of Europe What is Philosophy? Defining Philosophy is not easy. Part of what makes it difficult to find a consensus among philosophers about the definition of their discipline is precisely that they have frequently come to it from different fields, with different interests and concerns, and that they therefore have different areas of experience upon which they find it especially necessary or meaningful to reflect Philosophy is the intellectual, abstract, and methodical examination of reality as a whole or of essential characteristics of human life and experience. The word is originally Greek and came to us via Latin philosophia, which means "love of wisdom". Philosophers of the west: Who are they? They are influential philosophers who are responsible for the most influential ideas in history. They are the thinkers who put for the notions that still inform our understanding of the human condition today—groundbreaking, illuminating, ingenious; notions about reasoning, reality, spirituality, consciousness, dreams, social organization, human behavior, logic, and even love. Ancient Greek and Roman philosophy The ideas of thinkers like Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle who were Greek philosophers laid the foundations of Western philosophy, and their ideas continue to impact its understanding of the world today. The foundational ideas laid down by great thinkers such as Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle still influence our understanding of the world today. These brilliant scholars began to use reason and logic to try and unravel the workings of the cosmos. They also explored the intricacies of human morality. But who were these ancient Greek philosophers? And what were their key ideas? From pre-Socratic like Thales of Miletus through to Plato and Aristotle, we’ll discuss the famous thinkers that guided philosophy and science for thousands of years. The pre-Socratic philosophers Thales of Miletus (624/623 – c. 548/545 BC) – The First Greek Philosopher Philosophy in the 7th century BC was more concerned with natural science than with moral issues. Thales of Miletus was one of the first Greek philosophers to focus on scientific thought. Thales was born in the city of Miletus in Asia Minor in 624 BC and 27 was part of a new movement of thinkers trying to figure out how the universe was built. The philosophical branch of metaphysics was this. Thales was a Monist, which meant that he believed that the universe was built around one element. Thales arrived at this conclusion by pondering what a cosmological building block should be. He decided that it needed to be able to change and move. It had to be necessary for life, and it had to be something that could be used to create every component of the cosmos. Thales decided that water did meet all of these conditions based on his observations. He was one of the earliest thinkers to investigate natural-world explanations that were not based on the Gods. He became one of the most influential Greek philosophers thanks to this early type of rational reasoning. He established the Milesian School, and his successors taught students such as Pythagoras. Pythagoras (c. 570 – c. 495 BC)[ – The Father of Mathematics Pythagoras is thought to have been born in 570 BC on the Greek island of Samos, as part of the presocratic thinkers' second generation. Mathematics, according to Pythagoras, provides a harmonic and rational explanation for the universe's workings. He felt that mathematics was the underlying paradigm for philosophy and that its principles governed everything in the universe. In the form of proportions and ratios, he discovered the complex relationships between numbers. Pythagoras studied geometry and made some scientific breakthroughs that would have a long-term impact on architecture and mathematics. He was one of the first ancient Greek philosophers to reach conclusions by deductive reasoning, which marked a significant shift in how thinkers developed theories. Later Greek philosophers such as Plato were affected by Pythagoras' methods. Finally, Pythagoras may have thought his intellectual breakthroughs to be heavenly truths, as the Pythagoreans ascribed spiritual significance to numbers. The Great three: Socrates (c. 470–399 BCE) Socrates (c. 470–399 BCE) is considered a founding figure in Western philosophy, famed for his unwavering devotion to truth and virtue, extraordinary debate prowess, and martyrdom- like death. As a result of his public philosophising in Athens, the city's democratic government sentenced him to death for "impiety" and "corrupting the youth." He could have saved himself by agreeing to stop philosophising or fleeing to exile, but he refused, preferring instead to consume the poisonous hemlock in deference to the law. Beyond his reputation as a philosophical hero, Socrates is important for reorienting Greek philosophy toward ethical concerns and indeed for insisting that the cultivation of virtue, the “care of the soul,” is overwhelmingly the most important obligation of every human being. He famously asserted at his trial, in defiance of his accusers, that the unexamined life is not worth living. His penetrating style of exploring philosophical questions in conversation, typically exposing contradictions in the positions of his interlocutors, is called the Socratic Method. In defiance of his accusers, he famously stated during his trial that an unexamined life is not worth living. The Socratic method is a deep technique of investigating philosophical topics in conversation, gener ally highlighting contradictions in his interlocutors' perspectives. 28  Socrates didn't write anything.What is known about his beliefs comes from sources such as Plato's e arly dialogues, in which "Socrates" the principal figure in. Socrates believed that virtue is a type of knowledge, and that everyone who understands what virtue is comp elled to act morally. Plato (c. 428–c. 348 BCE) Socrates' student Plato (c. 428–c. 348 BCE) was by far the most bright and accomplished. His ideas were methodical, broad, profound, and incredibly important, laying the groundwork for ancient Neo- Platonism and driving the development of early mediaeval philosophy and Christian theology through that school. Platonic principles impacted the development of 19th-century German idealism and 20th-century process philosophy in following centuries. Plato's impact has been most evident in the philosophy of mathematics since the late nineteenth century, when mathematical Platonism is a well-established tradition with many present adherents. Plato's notion of Forms, which proposed a realm of ideal, perfect, and changeless beings underlying the world of common experience, was his most important contribution to philosophy. Plato was a great philosopher as well as a master literary artist, and he is a significant character in the history of Western literature. Plato's impact has been most evident in the philosophy of mathematics since the late nineteenth century, when mathematical Platonism is a well-established tradition with many present adherents. Plato's notion of Forms, which proposed a realm of ideal, perfect, and changeless beings underlying the world of common experience, was his most important contribution to philosophy. Plato was a great philosopher as well as a master literary artist, and he is a significant character in the history of Western literature. Plato's philosophical works were written as dialogues, with "Socrates" being the main character and speaker in the majority of them, and Plato himself never appears as a character in any of them. Plato's most renowned work, The Republic, lays forth his vision of a utopic society that is flawlessly governed. It wasn't even close to being a democracy. Farmers and artisans, warriors, and the governing class would naturally divide all residents in his ideal society. Plato's philosophy is the basis of a number of well-known literary motifs and mythologies, such as Platonic love, the philosopher-king, and the Cave metaphor (the world of experience is like a shadow cast on a cave wall by real but unseen objects). Aristotle (384–322 BCE) Aristotle (384–322 BCE), the third member of the great trio of ancient Greek philosophers after Socrates and Plato, is possibly the most influential thinker who ever lived. He made seminal and groundbreaking contributions to metaphysics, ethics, logic, and philosophy of mind, philosophy of science, moral psychology, political philosophy, and aesthetics, among other fields of philosophy. He established Formal Logic by creating the Syllogistic system of reasoning, which was not supplanted until the mid-nineteenth century. A syllogism is a type of logical argument that consists of three parts: Major Premise: A general statement. Minor Premise: A specific statement related to the major premise. Conclusion: The result that logically follows from the two premises. 29  He was also the world's first true empirical scientist, being the first to differentiate the major scientific subjects (such as biology, botany, chemistry, embryology, physics, and zoology) and to do important theoretical and observational work in each of them. Aristotle's philosophy became the intellectual framework of later Western Scholasticism after his main works were translated into Latin during the 12th century, surpassing (but not erasing) the impact of Neoplatonism as passed down through St. Augustine and the Church Fathers. Following the Scientific Revolution, interest in Aristotle's philosophy's scientific parts waned, and other aspects of his philosophy were only sometimes influential. Beginning in the second half of the twentieth century, virtue ethics, a self-aware resurrection of Aristotelian Eudaimonism (the theory of well- being), offered an approach to ethics rooted in human nature and devoid of the unexpected consequences of action-based ethical theories. New insights into Aristotle's philosophy continue to emerge from studies of his texts in ethics, metaphysics, and other subjects. Aristotle briefly tutored Macedonian Alexander the Great, the future ruler of the whole Greek world as well as North Africa and the Middle East, when he was 13 years old. Because of his Macedonian ancestry and ties, Aristotle fled Athens after Alexander's death in 323, claiming that he did not want the city that had killed Socrates to "sin twice against philosophy." Aristotle's whole philosophical treatises have all been lost. Lecture notes and draught manuscripts are the only writings attributed to him that have survived. The difficulty of his thinking is increased by their concise and condensed manner. St. Thomas Aquinas (c. 1224–1274) The greatest of the mediaeval Scholastic philosophers was St. Thomas Aquinas (c. 1224–74). Aquinas produced a comprehensive system of Christianized Aristotelianism that encompassed metaphysics, logic, cosmology, philosophy of mind, philosophy of religion, philosophy of nature, political philosophy, and ethics in response to the rediscovery of Aristotle's philosophy in the West through Latin translations of Aristotle's Greek texts, as did others of his era. While insisting on and even showing, the "new philosophy's" consistency with Christian doctrine, Aquinas famously differentiated philosophy and Theology by their respective starting places. Although both are rational pursuits guided by reason, philosophy begins with general first principles about the world that any reflective person would accept, whereas theology begins with truths about God or the divine revealed in Scripture, which can only be accepted on the basis of religious faith. Aspects of Aquinas' theory were contested by more conventional theologians and were condemned by the church during his lifetime. He was canonized a saint 50 years later, and he was proclaimed a doctor of the church during the Renaissance. In the late 19th century Pope Leo XIII called for a return to Aquinas in the face of modernizing trends in both philosophy and science. Thomism (the philosophy of Aquinas and his later interpreters) became the official philosophy of Roman Catholicism in 1917, following a revision of the Code of Canon Law that required Catholic teachers of philosophy and religion to adopt Aquinas’s methods and principles. Later in the 20th century Thomism represented an important school of thought even outside Catholic philosophy, especially in ethics, the philosophy of law, and political philosophy. Niccolò di Bernardo Dei Machiavelli (1469 – 1527) 30  Niccolò Machiavelli was an important figure during the Renaissance, known for his work as a diplomat, philosopher, and historian. Born in Florence in 1469, he is most famous for his political book, The Prince, written around 1513 but published in 1532. This book is often considered the foundation of modern political theory. Machiavelli argued that politics often involves deception and manipulation, suggesting that rulers might need to use harsh methods, including violence, to maintain power and achieve positive outcomes for their state. Reactions to The Prince have varied widely. Some people view it as a straightforward account of the ruthless tactics used by dictators, while others see it as dangerous advice encouraging tyranny. The term "Machiavellian" has come to describe cunning and deceitful political behavior. Besides The Prince, Machiavelli wrote other works that are less well-known but also significant. His ideas emphasize the importance of pragmatic leadership over traditional moral values, making him a key figure in discussions about power and governance throughout history. Machiavelli's insights continue to influence political thought today. One of the famous quotes in the book is: “Since love and fear can hardly exist together, if we must choose between them, it is far safer to be feared than loved.” René Descartes (1596–1650) René Descartes (1596–1650) is known as the father of modern philosophy. He introduced new ideas that changed how people think about science, the mind, and knowledge. Descartes developed a scientific approach based on mechanical principles, which means he viewed the world like a machine that follows specific laws. He also created a new way of understanding the relationship between the mind and the body, known as dualism. This idea suggests that the mind and body are separate but can interact. One of Descartes' most important contributions is his method of systematic doubt. This means he questioned everything that could possibly be false to find what is true. He famously stated, "Dubito, ergo cogito, ergo sum," or "I doubt, therefore I think, therefore I am." In his work "Meditations" (1641), he explored concepts of self-awareness, God, and the physical world. Descartes was also a talented mathematician who helped develop analytic geometry, which combines algebra and geometry to solve problems. His ideas influenced many fields, including cognitive science and linguistics in the 20th century. The modern debate about how our minds connect with our physical bodies stems from his dualistic views. Descartes' persecution stemmed from his challenge to established religious beliefs, fear of heresy in a repressive environment, and his cautious approach to publishing ideas that could be seen as controversial or threatening to the Church's authority. Descartes' philosophy questioned traditional views upheld by the Catholic Church and Aristotelian scholasticism. His ideas about doubt, reason, and the nature of existence, pushed against the Church's teachings. This shift towards rationalism and away from faith-based knowledge was seen as a threat by the catholic church in France. To avoid persecution for his beliefs, Descartes spent much of his life in the Netherlands, where he lived a somewhat secretive life, moving frequently to stay under the radar. Overall, Descartes' work laid the foundation for modern science and philosophy. His emphasis on doubt and reason encouraged future thinkers to question established beliefs and seek knowledge through observation and experimentation. By doing so, he helped shape the scientific method we use today, influencing how we understand both the natural world and our own minds. His legacy continues to impact various disciplines, making him a pivotal figure in history. 31  Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712 –1778) Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712–1778) was a significant philosopher, writer, and composer born in Geneva. His ideas played a crucial role in shaping the Enlightenment across Europe and influenced the French Revolution, as well as modern political, economic, and educational thought. Rousseau believed that the advancements in society led to moral decline rather than improvement. He argued that in the "state of nature," humans possess an "uncorrupted morality. “Rousseau categorized governments into three types: monarchy, aristocracy, and democracy. He claimed that each type emerged from varying degrees of inequality within society. Over time, these governments tended to create more inequality until revolutions occurred to replace them with new leaders. He maintained that humans have the potential for self-improvement and that many societal problems stem from political choices. By establishing a better political system, he believed it was possible to address these issues. His most famous work, The Social Contract, published in 1762, outlines his vision for a legitimate political order based on classical republicanism. This book is considered one of the foundational texts of Western political theory. Rousseau famously stated, “Man is born free, and everywhere he is in chains,” highlighting his belief that societal structures often restrict individual freedom. Rousseau’s philosophy also emphasized education and the importance of nurturing a child's natural goodness rather than imposing strict discipline. His book Emile (1762) presents his ideas on education, advocating for a more experiential approach that respects children's emotions and instincts. Throughout his life, Rousseau faced conflicts with other Enlightenment thinkers like Voltaire and Diderot, as well as with authorities in Paris and Switzerland. Despite these challenges, his works have had a lasting impact on philosophy, particularly regarding human nature and the dynamics of society. Rousseau's ideas continue to resonate today, making him a pivotal figure in both Enlightenment thought and modern political philosophy. Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) For his total transformation of the enterprise of Western philosophy, Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) is recognized as one of the most influential thinkers of the Enlightenment and a key philosopher since Aristotle. He transformed the field of philosophy by shifting from the Ptolemaic view, which placed Earth at the center of the universe, to a Copernican perspective that emphasized human reason. His extensive work covered various areas, including metaphysics, epistemology, ethics, and aesthetics, and laid the groundwork for modern rationalism and empiricism. Kant's ideas had a lasting impact on Western philosophy throughout the 19th and 20th centuries. Kant’s central philosophical question focused on the powers and limitations of human reason. He sought to explain how we can have meaningful knowledge in science and morality by connecting these claims to the innate structures of the mind. This approach led to the establishment of Kantianism, a philosophical tradition that continues to thrive today across multiple disciplines. Despite his intellectual achievements, Kant is often criticized for his challenging writing style. His first major work, Critique of Pure Reason (1781), was difficult for many readers, leading to misunderstandings about his ideas. This prompted him to publish a second edition in 1787, which differed from the first and sparked ongoing debates about his original intentions. Kant lived a quiet life in Königsberg, Prussia (now Kaliningrad, Russia), where his routine became a subject of interest. It was said that people could set their watches by his daily afternoon walks. At the core of Kant's philosophy is "transcendental idealism," which distinguishes between phenomena (things as we experience them) and noumena (things as they are in themselves). He argued that while we can know the observable world, traditional metaphysical questions about God or free will cannot be fully answered through reason alone. 32 Kant’s ethical framework is built around the "categorical imperative," which states that we should act according to principles that could be universally applied. He emphasized treating individuals with respect and dignity, asserting that morality is rooted in rationality rather than emotions or consequences. This rigorous approach to ethics has significantly influenced moral philosophy and discussions about justice and human rights today. Karl Marx (1818–1883) Karl Marx was a German economist and political theorist known for his revolutionary ideas that significantly impacted philosophy and politics. He is best known for his collaboration with Friedrich Engels after moving to London, where they developed a framework for analyzing class, society, and power dynamics. This framework revealed deep inequalities and the economic reasons behind state-sponsored violence, oppression, and war. Marx believed that the inherent inequalities and conflicts of capitalism would eventually lead to its downfall and the emergence of a socialist system. He envisioned a classless society where everyone would have access to the means of production. His call for a working-class revolution to dismantle an unequal system made Marxism a powerful ideology. The ideas he and Engels proposed spread globally, influencing major political movements in places like Soviet Russia, Eastern Europe, and China. A central concept in Marx's thought is historical materialism, which emphasizes the material conditions of society as the foundation for understanding history. Marx argued that societies evolved through class struggles driven by changes in economic production. He believed that labor is essential for survival and that human beings must work together to meet their needs. This labor creates social relationships that shape society's structure. According to Marx, as productive forces develop, they can conflict with existing social relations, leading to social revolutions. He identified four main modes of production throughout history: primitive communism, slavery, feudalism, and capitalism. Marx predicted that capitalism would ultimately give rise to socialism due to its contradictions, particularly the exploitation of workers, whom he called the proletariat. Despite his profound impact on political thought, Marx's ideas have faced criticism. Some argue that historical materialism oversimplifies complex social dynamics by attributing too much importance to economic factors. Others point to the collapse of communist regimes in the late 20th century as evidence against his theories. Nevertheless, Marx's analysis of class struggle remains influential in discussions about economics and social justice today. Fb riedrich Nietzsche (1844–1900) Friedrich Nietzsche (1844–1901) was a German philosopher, classicist, and cultural critic whose ideas had a significant impact on various fields, including philosophy, theology, psychology, and literature. Nietzsche is best known for his critiques of traditional Western philosophy, religion, and morality, which profoundly influenced 20th-century thought. His unique writing style—often aphoristic and poetic—helped popularize his ideas, although his fragmented approach sometimes led to misunderstandings. One of Nietzsche's most famous concepts is the "will to power," which he believed was a fundamental driving force in humans. Unfortunately, after his death, his sister Elisabeth Förster-Nietzsche misrepresented his work to promote her own nationalist agenda. She portrayed him as a figure supporting German nationalism and anti-Semitism, which he opposed. This distortion was later embraced by the Nazi regime in the 1930s.Nietzsche's early career began as a classical philologist, and he earned a doctorate from the University of Leipzig without needing a dissertation. At just 24 years old, he became a professor at the University of Basel. However, his 33 health declined after he contracted diphtheria and dysentery while serving as a medical orderly during the Franco-German War. His ongoing health issues forced him to retire from teaching in 1879.Nietzsche's philosophy includes several controversial ideas such as "slave morality," the declaration that "God is dead," and the concept of the "Übermensch" or "superman." He argued that traditional moral values were rooted in weakness and that society needed to create new values based on strength and creativity. Despite being misunderstood during his lifetime, Nietzsche's work has gained recognition for its depth and complexity. He emphasized the importance of individual creativity and the need to question established truths. His ideas have inspired existentialist thinkers like Jean-Paul Sartre and Albert Camus, as well as modern philosophers such as Jacques Derrida and Michel Foucault. Nietzsche's legacy continues to provoke discussion about morality, culture, and the nature of existence today. Jean-Paul Sartre (1905 – 1980) Jean-Paul Sartre (1905–1980) was a prominent French philosopher, novelist, and activist known for his significant contributions to existentialism and Marxism. His work emphasized the importance of achieving an authentic existence in a world shaped by oppressive social norms. Sartre's writings emerged during a time when authoritarian regimes, fascism, and Nazism were spreading across Europe, prompting him to engage in socialist resistance against Nazi collaborators in France. After World War II, Sartre focused on anti-colonial movements, particularly supporting the Algerian resistance against French imperialism. Throughout his life, he was a vocal supporter of the Soviet Union and its interpretation of Marxism, although he occasionally criticized human rights abuses within that system. Sartre famously claimed that humans are "condemned to be free," meaning that without a Creator to guide our actions, we bear full responsibility for our choices. Sartre’s existentialist philosophy posits that individuals must confront their freedom and the accompanying ethical responsibilities. He believed that while social conditioning influences our decisions, we still possess the ability to shape our destinies. In his work Existentialism Is a Humanism (1946), Sartre argued that individuals should embrace their freedom and act authentically. In Critique of Dialectical Reason (1960), Sartre sought to reconcile existentialism with Marxism. He argued for a dialectical relationship between individual agency and historical context, suggesting that while individuals are shaped by their social realities, they also have the power to influence those realities. This perspective emphasizes that personal freedom is interconnected with societal liberation. Sartre’s philosophical journey reflects a shift from early existentialist ideas to a more engaged political stance. He became increasingly involved in social issues, advocating for national liberation movements in Algeria and Vietnam. Despite his commitment to Marxism, some critics argue that his approach lacked the empirical economic analysis central to traditional Marxist thought. Overall, Sartre's legacy lies in his ability to blend existentialist ideas with political activism, emphasizing the importance of individual freedom while recognizing the impact of social structures. His work continues to inspire discussions about identity, responsibility, and the nature of human existence in contemporary philosophy. Michel Foucault, (1926- 1984) Michel Foucault (1926–1984) was a French historian, social theorist, and philosopher known for his extensive analysis of power and knowledge and their relationship to social control. Although 34 often labeled a postmodernist, Foucault was critical of modernist ideas. His background as a French diplomat shaped his understanding of social structures and how they have historically enforced inequalities based on race, religion, and gender. Foucault’s work has significantly influenced movements for social justice, human rights, and feminism. He actively participated in campaigns against racism, human rights abuses, and the mistreatment of prisoners, as well as advocating for the rights of the mentally ill. His research into power dynamics has impacted various fields, including sociology, communications, and political science. Central to Foucault's philosophy is the idea that power is everywhere and comes from various sources. He argued that power is not just held by individuals or institutions but is woven into the fabric of society itself. Foucault emphasized that knowledge is inherently linked to power; he coined the term "power/knowledge" to illustrate how knowledge can both shape and reinforce power structures. In this view, knowledge is not neutral; it can be used to control and regulate behavior. Foucault also examined how social constructs should be scrutinized for hierarchical inequalities. He believed that oppressed individuals have a right to fight against abuses of power to protect their rights. His concept of "bio-power" refers to the ways in which societies regulate populations through various institutions such as schools, prisons, and hospitals. These institutions use surveillance and discipline to shape behavior and maintain social order. Foucault’s analysis encourages a critical examination of accepted truths and norms in society. He argued that individuals are not merely repressed by social structures; rather, they are shaped by them. This perspective highlights the importance of understanding how power operates in everyday life and influences our identities and behaviors. Overall, Foucault’s work provides valuable insights into the dynamics of power and knowledge, urging us to question societal norms and consider how they affect individual freedoms and rights. His ideas continue to resonate in discussions about social justice and human rights today. 35  Chapter 4 The Great Writers and Poets of Europe Europe has produced many great writers, people who left a mark on culture and whose works are still being read. In the following chapter we will be briefly discussing notable writers and poets of Europe is in chronological order. The great British writers were discussed in other courses therefore they will not include herewith. The earliest traces of a literary great work can be traced back to the Ancient Greek civilization where works of writers and poets like Homer and Sophocles carried that heritage to scholastic studies that were based on them in later centuries. Later with the rise of the Roman Empire came Virgil and later the Italian Dante Alighieri. Other writers from the Medieval to the Enlightenment and through the Romantic era are discussed till the 20th century writers. Modern writers up till the present times still carry this heritage, and their writings manifest of religious political and methodological ideas are echoed in novels, poetry, etc. 1. Homer c. 8th/9th Century BCE The Greek blind poet Homer is credited with writing the Iliad and Odyssey, two epic poems that are considered foundational classics of Greek literature. He is often considered as one of history's finest and most important authors. The Iliad and Odyssey are two of the most important epic poems in western history, both having a profound effect on the development of written arts and culture. Traditionally these poems are ascribed to Homer, although he may simply have written and shaped works which had been in the oral memory of his ancestors. That said, by writing them down in the manner he did, Homer earned a place as one of Europe’s greatest poets. Of the man, we know little. The Iliad is set during the Trojan War, the ten-year siege of the city of Troy by a coalition of Mycenaean Greek kingdoms. According to classical texts, the war began when the Trojan prince Paris kidnapped (or started a relationship) 36 Queen Helen of Sparta. Menelaus, Helen's betrayed husband, persuaded his brother Agamemnon, king of Mycenae, to lead an expedition to find her. Agamemnon was accompanied by a fleet of over a thousand ships from all around the Hellenic realm, as well as the Greek heroes Achilles, Odysseus, Nestor, and Ajax. They sailed the Aegean Sea to Asia Minor, where they laid siege to Troy and demanded Priam, the Trojan ruler, return Helen. The siege lasted more than ten years, punctuated by fights and conflicts that included the legendary deaths of the Trojan prince Hector and the near-invincible Achilles. The Greek soldiers left from their camp the next morning, leaving a giant wooden horse outside the gates of Troy. The Trojans brought the unusual gift into the city after considerable deliberation (and ignoring Priam's daughter Cassandra's warnings). When night fell, a party of Greek warriors commanded by Odysseus stepped out of the horse and attacked Troy from within. The Greek heroes slowly returned home after the Trojan defeat. Odysseus' long and often-interrupted journey home to Ithaca, as recorded in the "Odyssey," took ten years. Helen returned to Sparta to rule alongside Menelaus after her two Trojan husbands were dead in the war. Some legends claim she was exiled to the island of Rhodes after his death, where she was hanged by an angry war widow. Sophocles 496 – 406 BCE Sophocles, born around 496 BCE in Colonus, near Athens, was a prominent playwright whose works significantly influenced the development of drama. He was a well-educated individual from a wealthy family and held various roles in Athenian society, including that of a military commander. Throughout his lifetime, he wrote over 120 plays, of which only seven have survived in full, with Oedipus Rex being the most celebrated. Sophocles won numerous awards at the Dionysian festival, reportedly triumphing more than 20 times, which underscores his status as one of the greatest playwrights of ancient Greece. His work has had a profound impact on literature and psychology, notably inspiring Sigmund Freud's concept of the Oedipus complex. Summary of Oedipus Rex Oedipus Rex, written around 429 BCE, is a tragedy that explores themes of fate, free will, and tragic flaws. The play begins with the city of Thebes suffering from a devastating plague. Oedipus, the king who previously saved the city from the Sphinx by solving its riddle, vows to find the cause of this new calamity. He 37 sends his brother-in-law Creon to consult the oracle at Delphi. Upon Creon's return, he reveals that the plague is a punishment for harboring the murderer of Laius, the former king.Determined to uncover the truth, Oedipus summons Tiresias, a blind prophet. Initially reluctant to speak, Tiresias eventually accuses Oedipus himself of being Laius's killer. In disbelief and anger, Oedipus dismisses Tiresias's claims and accuses him of conspiracy. However, as the investigation unfolds, Oedipus learns that he had unwittingly fulfilled a prophecy foretold at his birth: he had killed his father Laius at a crossroads and married his mother Jocasta.As the truth emerges, Jocasta hangs herself in despair upon realizing their relationship. In a fit of grief and horror at his actions, Oedipus blinds himself using her hairpins and begs Creon to care for his daughters before exiling himself from Thebes. The play concludes with a somber reflection on fate and human suffering as the chorus laments that no one can escape their destiny. Importance in the History of Drama Oedipus Rex is often regarded as one of the greatest achievements in Greek tragedy and has had a lasting influence on Western literature and drama. Its exploration of complex themes such as fate versus free will resonates deeply with audiences and has prompted extensive analysis over centuries. The play illustrates the concept of excessive pride, which is central to many tragic narratives; Oedipus's downfall stems from his inability to heed warnings about seeking knowledge that he ultimately cannot bear. The structure of Oedipus Rex set a standard for dramatic storytelling through its use of dramatic irony—where the audience knows more than the characters—which heightens emotional engagement. This technique has been emulated by countless playwrights throughout history. Furthermore, Sophocles' innovative use of character development and dialogue paved the way for more nuanced portrayals in theater. The psychological dimensions introduced in Oedipus Rex, particularly regarding identity and self-discovery, have also made it relevant in modern discussions about human behavior and motivation. Freud's concept of the Oedipus complex illustrates how deeply ingrained these themes are in human psychology. In summary, Oedipus Rex not only exemplifies Sophocles' mastery as a playwright but also marks a pivotal moment in the evolution of drama. Its enduring themes continue to resonate with audiences today, reinforcing its status as a cornerstone of literary history and psychological inquiry. Sophocles' contributions have shaped not just theater but also our understanding of human nature itself. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ocqNsxD6SwI 38  2. Aristophanes c. 450 – c. 388 BCE A Greek Athenian citizen who wrote during the era of the Peloponnesian War, Aristophanes’ work constitutes the greatest surviving body of ancient Greek comedies from one person. Still performed today, his most famous piece is probably Lysistrata. 3. Virgil 70 – 18 BCE Virgil is celebrated as one of the greatest poets of ancient Rome, and his legacy has endured through the centuries. His most renowned work, the Aeneid, is an epic poem that not only tells the story of Aeneas, a Trojan hero and the founder of Rome, but also serves as a cornerstone of Roman cultural identity. Written between 29 and 19 BC during the reign of Augustus, the Aeneid consists of 12 books and approximately 9,896 lines, crafted in dactylic hexameter. This monumental work draws heavily from earlier Greek epics, particularly Homer's Iliad and Odyssey, yet it establishes a distinctly Roman narrative that intertwines themes of fate, duty, and divine intervention. The Aeneid holds significant importance not only as a literary masterpiece but also as a foundational text in the history of drama and epic storytelling. By crafting a narrative that blends personal struggle with national destiny, Virgil established a template for future epics and dramas that explore themes of heroism, sacrifice, and divine influence over human affairs. The interplay between fate and free will in Aeneas's journey resonates deeply within Western literature. Moreover, Virgil's influence extends far beyond his own time; his works were integral to Roman education and were studied by generations of students. Aeneid inspired countless writers throughout history, including Dante Alighieri, who featured Virgil as a guide in his own epic work, The Divine Comedy. This connection underscores Virgil's role as a bridge between classical antiquity and later literary traditions. Dante Alighieri 1265 – 1321 Dante Alighieri, a prominent writer, philosopher, and political thinker, crafted his most renowned work, The Divine Comedy, during a turbulent period of exile from his beloved Florence, Italy. This exile was a consequence of his involvement in the political strife of the time. The Divine Comedy is not only a 39 cornerstone of Italian literature but also a profound exploration of the human soul's journey towards God. Its impact on cultural depictions of the afterlife and its role in establishing the Italian language as a literary medium cannot be overstated. The Divine Comedy is an epic poem divided into three distinct parts: Inferno, Purgatorio, and Paradiso. Each section consists of thirty-three cantos, reflecting the medieval theological understanding of the afterlife. The narrative begins with Dante lost in a dark forest, symbolizing confusion and sin. He is guided by the Roman poet Virgil, who represents human reason and wisdom. Together, they embark on a journey through the three realms of the afterlife. They travel through nine celestial spheres, each representing different virtues and levels of bliss. The culmination of this journey leads to a vision of God—a moment that embodies ultimate enlightenment and divine love. The poem concludes with Dante's realization that true understanding transcends human comprehension. The Divine Comedy holds immense significance in the history of drama and literature for several reasons. Firstly, it provides an allegorical framework for understanding human existence and morality, illustrating the consequences of one's actions in life. This theme resonates deeply within dramatic literature, influencing countless playwrights and poets who followed. Moreover, Dante's decision to write in Italian rather than Latin marked a pivotal shift in literary tradition. By doing so, he not only made literature accessible to a broader audience but also helped establish the Tuscan dialect as the standardized Italian language. This choice laid the groundwork for future Italian writers and contributed to the rise of vernacular literature across Europe. The poem's imaginative portrayal of the afterlife has shaped popular depictions of hell and heaven throughout history. Its vivid imagery and complex characterizations have inspired adaptations in various forms of art, including theater, visual arts, and modern literature. The Divine Comedy is more than just a literary masterpiece; it is a profound exploration of faith, morality, and redemption that continues to resonate with audiences today. Its influence on drama and literature underscores its importance as a foundational text that captures the complexities of human experience within a structured moral framework. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-_xdcS66fKU 40  1. Miguel de Cervantes 1547 – 1616 Miguel de Cervantes (1547-1616) is one of the most significant figures in Spanish literature, renowned for his novel Don Quixote. This work is often hailed as the first modern novel and stands as a monumental achievement in world literature. Cervantes' life was marked by adversity; he served as a soldier and endured years of captivity as a slave until his family managed to secure his release. Later, he worked in various civil service roles, but financial struggles persisted throughout his life. Despite these challenges, Cervantes made substantial contributions across genres, including novels, plays, poems, and short stories, ultimately culminating in the creation of Don Quixote. Don Quixote follows the adventures of Alonso Quijano, a middle-aged gentleman from La Mancha who becomes enamored with chivalric romances. Inspired by these tales, he resolves to become a knight-errant and adopts the name Don Quixote. He dons an old suit of armor and rides his feeble horse, Rocinante, setting off on a quest to revive chivalry and protect the helpless. Accompanied by his loyal squire, Sancho Panza, Don Quixote embarks on various misadventures, mistaking windmills for giants and inns for castles. His delusions lead him into humorous yet tragic situations as he confronts the realities of a world that has moved beyond the ideals he cherishes. Throughout the narrative, themes of illusion versus reality are explored. Don Quixote's unwavering belief in his noble purpose ultimately leads to his downfall; after being defeated by the Knight of the White Moon, he is forced to abandon his knightly pursuits. In the end, he renounces chivalry as foolishness and dies disillusioned. Don Quixote holds a pivotal place in literary history, influencing not only novels but also drama and theater. Its rich characterizations and complex narrative structure paved the way for modern storytelling techniques. The interplay between reality and illusion in Cervantes' work resonates with later playwrights and authors, establishing a foundation for character-driven narratives that explore human psychology. The novel's blend of humor and tragedy has inspired countless adaptations in theater, film, and literature, solidifying its legacy as a cornerstone of Western literary tradition. Cervantes' exploration of themes such as identity, madness, and social critique continues to resonate with audiences today, marking Don Quixote as an enduring masterpiece that transcends time and genre. 1. Voltaire 1694 - 1778 41  Voltaire, the pseudonym of François-Marie Arouet, was a prominent figure of the French Enlightenment, renowned for his sharp wit and incisive critiques of societal norms, particularly those surrounding religion and governance. He championed the ideals of freedom of speech and religion, advocating for the separation of church and state. His literary contributions were diverse, encompassing satire, historical narratives, and philosophical essays, which collectively earned him significant acclaim during his lifetime. Among his most celebrated works is Candide, a novella that not only exemplifies Enlightenment thought but also serves as a critical commentary on optimism and human suffering. Candide follows the misadventures of its titular character, a naive young man raised in an idyllic setting under the optimistic tutelage of Professor Pangloss. Candide's sheltered existence is shattered when he is expelled from the baron’s castle after being caught with Cunégonde, the baron’s daughter. This expulsion thrusts him into a harsh world filled with war, natural disasters, and human cruelty. Throughout his journey across Europe and South America, Candide encounters a series of problems that challenge Pangloss's assertion that "all is for the best in the best of all possible worlds." As Candide sees atrocities such as war, slavery, and natural disasters—including the devastating Lisbon earthquake—his faith in optimism starts to change. Ultimately, after enduring numerous hardships, he concludes that true happiness lies not in philosophical speculation but in practical engagement with life: "We must cultivate our garden." This realization underscores Voltaire's argument against blind optimism and highlights the necessity of addressing real-world issues. Candide holds a significant place in the history of drama and literature due to its pioneering use of satire to critique philosophical ideologies. Voltaire's work challenges the prevailing optimism of his time, particularly that espoused by Leibniz. By employing humor and irony, he exposes the absurdity of philosophical doctrines that ignore human suffering. The novella's themes resonate with audiences today, reflecting ongoing debates about optimism versus realism in facing life's challenges. Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (1749 –1832) Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, born on August 28, 1749, in Frankfurt, Germany, is widely regarded as one of the most significant figures in German literature and a profound influence on Western thought. His extensive career encompassed various roles, including poet, playwright, novelist, scientist, statesman, theatre director, and critic. Goethe's literary contributions are diverse and include plays, poetry, novels, and aesthetic criticism, alongside scientific treatises on topics such as botany and color theory. One of Goethe's most notable works is "The 42 Sorrows of Young Werther," published in 1774. This novel tells the story of Werther, a young artist who becomes infatuated with Lotte, a woman engaged to another man. The narrative captures Werther's intense emotions as he grapples with love and despair, ultimately leading to his tragic end. The book resonated deeply with readers across Europe and sparked what became known as "Werther Fever," where young men emulated the protagonist's style and demeanor. This phenomenon not only catapulted Goethe to fame but also established him as a key figure in the Sturm und Drang literary movement, which emphasized strong emotional expression over rationality. Goethe's impact on literature extends beyond his own works; he played a crucial role in shaping the cultural landscape of his time. After joining the Weimar court in 1775, he became an integral part of a vibrant intellectual community that fostered artistic collaboration. His partnership with fellow writer Friedrich Schiller transformed the Weimar Theatre into a national treasure and solidified their legacies as central figures in German literature. Goethe's exploration of individualism and emotional depth in "Werther" marked a significant evolution in drama and literature. He challenged societal norms and articulated the complexities of human experience, paving the way for future literary movements. His ability to express the struggles of existence and the quest for identity makes him an enduring figure in literary history. Today, Goethe's works continue to be celebrated for their profound insights into the human condition and their lasting influence on literature and philosophy. Victor Hugo 1802 – 1885 Victor Hugo, a prominent 19th-century French author, is best known for his monumental novel Les Misérables, published in 1862. This work has left an indelible mark on literature and drama, reflecting the social and political issues of its time. Hugo is celebrated in France not only as a masterful poet but also as a key figure of the Romantic movement and a symbol of French republicanism. His political beliefs evolved throughout his life; initially a royalist, he later became an ardent supporter of republican ideals, particularly during his exile from France under Napoleon III. Les Misérables is a profound exploration of human suffering, love, and redemption set against the backdrop of early 19th-century France. The narrative centers on Jean Valjean, a man who endures immense hardship after serving 19 years in prison for stealing a loaf of bread to feed his sister's children. His journey begins when he is released and encounters Bishop Myriel, who shows him unexpected kindness. This pivotal moment inspires Valjean to seek redemption and change his life. However, he is relentlessly pursued by Inspector Javert, who embodies the unforgiving nature of the law. 43  The climax occurs during the June Rebellion of 1832, where Valjean's courage and compassion shine as he risks everything to save Marius, Cosette’s love.The significance of Les Misérables extends beyond its narrative; it serves as a powerful critique of societal injustices such as poverty, child exploitation, and the failings of the legal system. Hugo’s work has influenced countless adaptations in theater and film, making it a cornerstone of dramatic literature. Its themes resonate with audiences today, highlighting the enduring struggle for justice and compassion in society. Thus, Les Misérables remains not only a literary masterpiece but also an essential commentary on human rights and dignity throughout history. Fyodor Dostoyevsky 1821 – 1881 Fyodor Dostoevsky, a prominent Russian author, is renowned for his profound exploration of philosophical and religious themes, particularly in the context of 19th-century Russia's tumultuous political and social landscape. His literary includes notable works such as Crime and Punishment (1866), The Idiot (1869), Demons (1872), and his final masterpiece, The Brothers Karamazov (1880). Dostoevsky's contributions to literature are vast, comprising 12 novels, four novellas, 16 short stories, and various essays. His works are often hailed as masterpieces, positioning him among the greatest authors in literary history. The Brothers Karamazov encapsulates the essence of Dostoevsky’s literary genius. The narrative revolves around the Karamazov family, particularly the three brothers: Dmitri, Ivan, and Alyosha. Their father, Fyodor Pavlovich Karamazov, is a morally corrupt man whose relationships with his sons are fraught with conflict. The novel unfolds as a murder mystery centered on Fyodor's death, with Dmitri accused of the crime. However, the story transcends mere plot; it delves into complex themes of morality, faith, and existential despair. Each brother embodies distinct philosophical perspectives: Dmitri represents hedonism, Ivan embodies nihilism, and Alyosha reflects Christian existentialism. This interplay of ideologies creates a rich tapestry that explores the human condition and moral dilemmas. Noteworthy passages include Ivan's parable "The Grand Inquisitor," which critiques religious authority and questions divine justice. The significance of The Brothers Karamazov extends beyond its narrative; it is a cornerstone in the history of drama and literature. Dostoevsky’s exploration of psychological depth and moral ambiguity has influenced countless writers and thinkers. His ability to weave intricate character studies with profound philosophical inquiries has left an indelible mark on literature. The novel’s impact 44 resonates through its examination of themes such as free will, guilt, and redemption, making it a timeless classic that continues to inspire discussions on ethics and spirituality in contemporary society. Leo Tolstoy 1828 – 1910 Born to wealthy aristocratic parents who died while he was still young, Tolstoy began his career in writing before serving in the Crimean War. After he this turned to a mixture of teaching and writing, creating what have been labeled two of the great novels in literature: War and Peace, set during the Napoleonic Wars and Anna Karenina. He has been considered a master of human observation, realist fiction and was well-known throughout his life for his moralistic views and opinions. 1. Henrik Ibsen (1828 – 1906) Henrik Johan Ibsen was a Norwegian writer and theatre director who lived from 1828 to 1906. Ibsen is generally referred to as "the father of realism" and one of the most prominent playwrights of his time, as one of the creators of modernism in theatre. After Shakespeare, Ibsen is the most often produced dramatist in the world, and A Doll's House was the most widely performed play in 2006. His major works include Brand, Peer Gynt, and An Enemy of the People, Emperor and Galilean, A Doll's House, Hedda Gabler, Ghosts, The Wild Duck, When We Dead Awaken. Ibsen grew as a person and an artist in a tumultuous relationship with Danish theatre and literature." The societal issues that Ibsen was concerned with belonged unmistakably to the nineteenth century. The psychological concerns that he investigated are the qualities of his literature that appeal the most to modern readers. The social themes he addressed so forcefully in his day, as well as the late-Victorian middle-class setting of his plays, have become antiquated. The fact that they nevertheless have a compelling power whether read or produced attests to his continuing quality as a thinker and dramatist. 2. Franz Kafka (1883–1924) Kafka was born into a middle-class German-speaking Jewish family in Prague, the capital of the Kingdom of Bohemia, then part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, today the capital of the Czech Republic. Kafka wrote in German and his 45 works have been translated into numerous languages. Kafka is considered one of the most influential writers ever. His classic European literature style tackles many of the diseases of the mind and he embraced philosophies such as existentialism. He was a German-speaking Bohemian novelist and short-story writer who is widely considered one of the most important personalities in twentieth-century literature. His work is a mix of realism and fantastical aspects. It usually contains isolated characters in odd or surreal situations, as well as socio-bureaucratic powers that are beyond comprehension. It's been suggested that it's about alienation, existential anguish, guilt, and absurdity. His best-known works are The Metamorphosis a short tale, and the novels The Trial and The Castle. The term "Kafkaesque" has been coined to characterize events similar to those depicted in his works. Worksheet 2 Chapter 4 List the names of major English language writers and poets that you have studied before in your Literature course according to the following timeline: Compare with development of literature in Europe Era British / English European writers writers 8th/9th Century BCE 6th /7th Century BCE 5th /4th Century BCE 100 BCE to Common Era 1200s 1300s 1400s 1500s 1600s 1700s 1800s 1900s 46  Chapter 5: A quick look at the Great Scientists of Europe The history of science is intricately linked with historical developments, tracing progress from antiquity to modern times. Science encompasses three branches: natural, social, and formal sciences. Its origins can be traced back to Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia (circa 3000-1200 BCE), where early contributions in mathematics, astronomy, and medicine laid the groundwork for classical Greek natural philosophy. This philosophical tradition sought to explain phenomena based on natural causes rather than supernatural ones. Following the fall of the Roman Empire, the understanding of Greek scientific thought diminished in Latin-speaking Western Europe during the early Middle Ages (400–1000 CE). However, this knowledge was preserved and expanded upon in the Arabic-speaking Muslim world during the Islamic Golden Age through translations of Greek works. The Scientific Revolution in 16th- to 17th-century Europe marked a departure from earlier Greek traditions. This period introduced a more mechanical worldview, emphasizing mathematical integration and empirical approaches to knowledge. The 18th and 19th centuries brought new perspectives on energy and the 20th century further expanded scientific understanding with breakthroughs in genetics and physics, leading to new disciplines such as molecular biology and particle physics. The upcoming sections will highlight the most significant landmarks in these stages. Philosophy of Nature The earliest systematic debates in natural philosophy were shaped by Plato and Aristotle, whose works significantly influenced later scientific inquiries. Plato established the Platonic Academy around 387 BCE, emphasizing geometry as foundational for philosophical thought. His student, Aristotle, introduced empirical methods and advocated for observation to discover universal truths. Aristotle's extensive biological studies led him to identify over 540 animal species through observation and dissection. Archimedes (c. 287-212 BCE), hailed as one of the greatest mathematicians of antiquity, made significant contributions to mathematics and physics. His principle regarding buoyancy—stating that an object submerged in fluid displaces an amount of fluid equal to its own weight—illustrates his innovative thinking. European Science in the Middle Ages By the 11th century, most of Europe had become Christian, leading to stronger monarchies and restored borders. Technological advancements increased food production and manpower. Classical Greek texts were translated into Latin from Arabic and Greek, stimulating 47  scholarly debate despite limited scientific achievements during this period. Early attempts to dissect human bodies began to emerge as challenges to Catholic Church doctrines. Explorers like Marco Polo ventured eastward due to the Pax Mongolia, inspiring maritime exploration during the Age of Discovery in the 17th and 18th centuries. The intellectual revival began in the 12th century with medieval universities such as those at Bologna (1088), Paris (1150), Oxford (1167), and Cambridge (1231). Contact with the Byzantine Empire and Islamic scholars during the Reconquista and Crusades allowed Latin Europe access to critical scientific texts by Aristotle, Ptolemy, Isidore of Miletus, Jabir ibn Hayyan (‫)جابر بن حيان‬, Al-Khwarizmi (‫)الخوارزمي‬, Alhazen (Ibn al-Haytham) (‫)ابن الهيثم‬, Avicenna (Ibn Sina) (‫)ابن سينا‬, and Averroes (Ibn Rushd) (‫)ابن رشد‬. By the early 13th century, accurate Latin translations of essential ancient works facilitated a robust exchange of scientific ideas through universities and monasteries. Scholars like Roger Bacon and Albertus Magnus began extending natural philosophy based on these texts. However, events such as the Black Death in 1348 abruptly halted philosophical and scientific progress. This revision emphasizes key scientists while maintaining historical context throughout European scientific development from antiquity through the Middle Ages. Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) Galileo is often referred to as the "father of modern observational astronomy." He made significant improvements to the telescope and conducted pivotal astronomical observations, including the moons of Jupiter, the phases of Venus, and sunspots. His work laid the groundwork for modern physics and the scientific method. Galileo lived during a time of significant tension between science and religion, particularly with the Catholic Church. His support for heliocentrism (the idea that the Earth revolves around the Sun) led to conflict with Church authorities, culminating in his trial by the Inquisition in 1633. He was forced to recant his views and spent the remainder of his life under house arrest. Isaac Newton (1643-1727) Newton is best known for formulating the laws of motion and universal gravitation, which revolutionized physics and mathematics. His work "Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica" established foundational principles that governed celestial mechanics and laid the groundwork for classical mechanics. Newton's era was marked by political upheaval in England, including the English Civil War and the Glorious Revolution. He was a devout Christian who believed in a rational universe created by God, which influenced his scientific inquiries. The Enlightenment period during his lifetime fostered a growing interest in science and reason over traditional religious explanations. Charles Darwin (1809-1882) Darwin is renowned for his theory of evolution by natural selection, articulated in "On the Origin of Species" (1859). This groundbreaking work provided a scientific explanation for the 48 diversity of life on Earth and challenged existing beliefs about creation. Darwin's theories emerged during a time of significant social change, including industrialization and debates over religion and science. The Victorian era was characterized some adherence to religious beliefs; however, Darwin's ideas sparked controversy and led to conflicts between scientific inquiry and religious doctrine, particularly within Christianity. Marie Curie (1867-1934) Marie Curie was a pioneering physicist and chemist known for her research on radioactivity. She discovered two elements, polonium and radium, and was the first woman to win a Nobel Prize, receiving it in both Physics (1903) and Chemistry (1911). Her work laid the foundation for advances in medical treatments using radiation. Curie's career unfolded during a time when women faced significant barriers in science. The early 20th century saw movements for women's rights gaining momentum, alongside World War I, which shifted societal roles. Curie's achievements challenged gender norms in science while she navigated a male-dominated field. Alessandro Volta (1745-1827) Alessandro Volta was an Italian physicist and chemist best known for inventing the electric battery, known as the Voltaic Pile, which was the first true source of continuous electric current. His work laid the foundation for the field of electrochemistry and significantly advanced the study of electricity. Volta's contributions occurred during the Age of Enlightenment, a time characterized by a shift towards reason and scientific inquiry over traditional religious beliefs. This period saw increasing interest in experimentation and empirical evidence, which influenced Volta’s scientific approach. His work was recognized by various institutions, including the French Academy of Sciences, reflecting a growing appreciation for scientific achievements across Europe. Michael Faraday (1791-1867) Michael Faraday was an English scientist who made groundbreaking contributions to electromagnetism and electrochemistry. He discovered electromagnetic induction, which is the principle behind electric generators and transformers, and formulated Faraday's laws of electrolysis. Faraday's work emerged during the Industrial Revolution, a period marked by rapid technological advancement and societal change. As a devout Christian, he often integrated his faith with his scientific pursuits, believing that understanding nature revealed God's design. His humble beginnings as a bookbinder's apprentice exemplify the era's belief that merit and intellect could lead to success regardless of social class. Charles Darwin (1809-1882) 49  Charles Darwin is best known for his theory of evolution through natural selection, articulated in his seminal work "On the Origin of Species" (1859). His research provided a scientific framework for understanding the diversity of life on Earth and fundamentally changed biological sciences. Darwin's theories emerged in a time of significant social upheaval, including debates over religion and science during the Victorian era. The publication of his ideas challenged traditional religious views on creation, leading to intense controversy and discussions about faith versus science. The backdrop of colonial expansion also influenced his studies in natural history. Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) Sigmund Freud was an Austrian neurologist who founded psychoanalysis, a clinical method for treating mental disorders through dialogue between patient and therapist. His theories on the unconscious mind, defense mechanisms, and childhood experiences have had a profound impact on psychology and psychiatry. Freud lived through significant political changes in Europe, including the rise of anti-Semitism leading up to World War II. As a Jewish intellectual in Vienna, he faced societal challenges that influenced his work. His theories often conflicted with prevailing moral standards of his time, particularly regarding sexuality and human behavior, contributing to both acclaim and criticism within academic circles. Albert Einstein (1879-1955) Albert Einstein was a theoretical physicist whose work revolutionized our understanding of space, time, and energy. He is best known for developing the theory of relativity, particularly the equation E=mc2E=mc2, which describes the equivalence of mass and energy. Einstein's life spanned two World Wars and significant political upheaval in Europe. As a Jewish scientist who fled Germany due to Nazi persecution, he became an advocate for civil rights and pacifism. His views on religion were complex; he expressed agnostic beliefs while appreciating the mysteries of the universe, often emphasizing that science should not be confined by religious dogma. 50  Chapter 6 The Great Artists of Europe Ancient Greece: Birthplace of Western Art Ancient Greek art, arguably the foundation of Western art, is renowned for its emphasis on human form and its pursuit of ideal beauty. Key Characteristics: o Naturalism and Idealism: Greek artists strived for a balance between accurate observation of the human body and the creation of idealized forms. This is evident in their sculptures of athletes, gods, and goddesses, where physical perfection and harmonious proportions were paramount. o Humanism: A strong emphasis on human potential, reason, and achievement permeated Greek art. This is reflected in their depictions of individuals engaged in intellectual pursuits, athletic competitions, and civic duties. o Innovation in Materials and Techniques: The Greeks experimented with various materials, including marble, bronze, terracotta, and ivory. They developed sophisticated techniques in sculpture, such as contrapposto (a subtle shift in weight that creates a sense of dynamism), and perfected the art of vase painting, employing intricate decorative motifs. Periods of Development: Geometric Period (c. 900–700 BCE): Characterized by geometric patterns in vase paintings. Orientalizing Period (c. 700–600 BCE): Marked by influences from Eastern cultures and narrative scenes. Archaic Period (c. 600–480 BCE): Notable for kouros (male nude) and kore (draped female) statues. Classical Period (c. 480–323 BCE): Known as the "golden age" of Greek art. Hellenistic Period (c. 323–31 BCE): Art became more dynamic and emotional, as seen in the Laocoön Group sculpture. The Roman Empire: Conquest and Assimilation 51  The Romans, masterful conquerors, absorbed and adapted the artistic traditions of the cultures they encountered, including the Greeks. Key Characteristics: Roman Realism: While influenced by Greek ideals, Roman art often leaned towards a more realistic and pragmatic approach, focusing on portraits that captured individual likenesses with remarkable accuracy. Public Art: The Romans were prolific builders and patrons of the arts, creating vast public works such as temples, amphitheaters, and aqueducts, adorned with intricate sculptures and mosaics. Practicality and Utility: Roman art served both aesthetic and functional purposes. Mosaics adorned floors and walls, while frescoes decorated the interiors of villas and public buildings. The Middle Ages: Faith and Devotion The Middle Ages (c. 5th-15th centuries) witnessed a profound shift in artistic focus, with Christianity playing a central role. Early Medieval Period: o Byzantine Art: Influenced by Roman and Eastern traditions, Byzantine art emphasized religious imagery, with stylized figures and a focus on spiritual transcendence. o EarlyChristian Art: Characterized by simple, symbolic forms and a focus on the narrative of the Bible. Gothic Art (c. 12th-15th centuries): o Architectural Marvels: Gothic architecture, with its soaring arches, stained glass windows, and intricate stonework, became a defining feature of the period. o Emphasis on the Divine: Religious themes dominated Gothic art, with a focus on the Virgin Mary and the saints. o Emotional Expression: Gothic art, while retaining a sense of reverence, also conveyed a greater sense of emotion and human connection with the divine. The Renaissance: A Rebirth of Classical Ideals The Renaissance (c. 14th-17th centuries), a period of intellectual and artistic flourishing, marked a return to the values and aesthetics of classical antiquity. 52  Key Characteristics: o Humanism: A renewed emphasis on human potential, reason, and individuality. o Naturalism and Realism: Artists sought to accurately depict the natural world and human anatomy, drawing inspiration from classical art and scientific observation. o Individualism: The rise of individual artists, celebrated for their unique styles and creative genius. Major Figures: o Leonardo da Vinci: A true Renaissance man, renowned for his scientific curiosity and his masterful paintings, such as "Mona Lisa" and "The Last Supper." o Michelangelo: A sculptor, painter, and architect of unparalleled talent, known for his monumental frescoes in the Sistine Chapel and his powerful sculptures of David and Pietà. Late Renaissance and Beyond The late Renaissance saw the emergence of new artistic styles, each reflecting the changing social and cultural landscape of Europe. Mannerism (c. 1520-1600): A reaction against the harmonious ideals of High Renaissance art, characterized by elongated figures, distorted perspectives, and an emphasis on emotional intensity. Baroque (c. 1600-1750): A dynamic and theatrical style, characterized by dramatic use of light and shadow, movement, and emotional intensity. Rococo (c. 1720-1780): A lighter, more playful style, characterized by delicate curves, pastel colors, and a focus on aristocratic leisure and pleasure. 19th Century: Romanticism, Realism, and Impressionism The 19th century witnessed a profound shift in artistic expression, with a growing emphasis on individual emotion, social commentary, and the exploration of new artistic techniques. Romanticism (c. late 18th-mid 19th centuries): A reaction against the rationalism of the Enlightenment, characterized by an emphasis on emotion, imagination, and the sublime power of nature. Realism (c. mid-19th century): A focus on the accurate depiction of everyday life, often portraying the lives of ordinary people and social issues. 53  Impressionism (c. 1870-1880): A revolutionary movement that sought to capture the fleeting effects of light and atmosphere, focusing on the subjective experience of vision. With sharp lines but natural feel (Paul Cézanne (1839–1906) 20th Century: Modernism and Beyond The 20th century saw a radical transformation of art, with the rise of numerous avant- garde movements that challenged traditional notions of form, representation, and the very nature of art. Cubism (c. 1907-1914): Pioneered by Pablo Picasso and Georges Braque, Cubism revolutionized art by breaking down objects into geometric shapes and reassembling them from multiple perspectives. (Pablo Picasso ) Expressionism (c. early 20th century): A movement that emphasized emotional expression, often using bold colors and distorted forms to convey feelings. Surrealism (c. 1920s-1940s): Explored the realm of the unconscious, drawing inspiration from dreams, fantasies, and the irrational. 54  Chapter 7 History of Wars and politics in Europe Politically, there are many different definitions of Europe, and there is a substantial disagreement concerning the eastern and southeastern borders, particularly how to describe the countries of the former Soviet Union. For centuries, Europe has been a source of political, cultural, and economic influence. Its countries' influence has spread well beyond the continent, impacting every part of the globe. Europe is known for its societal transformations, such as the Renaissance, the Protestant Reformation, and colonialism, imperialism, as well as its revolutions and conflicts. The consequences of these transformations may still be felt around the world today. Most historians agree that Europe's colonial expansion took place in stages. The first settlements in the Americas began in the 15th century and continued into the 19th century. At the same time, the English, Dutch, French, Spanish, Portuguese, and other European countries explored and conquered Africa, India, Asia, and Australia. Therefore, the political history of Europe has a huge number of landmarks that will be briefly discussed here. These will include examples of some great wars, empires, and revolutions. We will also highlight some important political figures through these events. 1. Origins of democracy Ancient Greek The first democracy was established by the ancient Greeks. The word "democracy" is derived from two Greek words meaning "people" (demos) and "rule" (kratos) (kratos). Democracy is the concept that a country's citizens should play an active role in its government, either directly or through elected representatives. Moreover, it promotes the idea that peaceful power transfers, rather than violent uprisings or revolutions, can be used by the people to replace their government. As a result, having a voice is an important aspect of democracy. Athens was home to the world's first democracy. Around the fifth century B.C.E., Athenian democracy emerged. The Greek concept of democracy differed from modern democracy in that all adult citizens in Athens were required to participate actively in the government. They were penalised and even tagged with red paint if they did not do their duties. Citizenship in Athens was also defined differently than it is today: only free males were considered citizens in Athens. Women, children, and slaves were not considered citizens and hence did not have the right to vote. In later ages every year, 500 names were chosen from all of ancient Athens' people. Those 500 citizens were required to work in the government for a year. They were in charge of drafting new laws and overseeing all aspects of the political process during that year. When a new legislation was introduced, all of Athens' people were given the chance to vote on it. 55 Citizens were required to attend the assembly on the day of the vote in order to vote. Direct democracy is the name for this type of government. Many philosophers from all around Greece convened in the democratic setting of Athens to establish their beliefs. Socrates was the first to address the issue of an individual's relationship to a community, followed by his pupil Plato. Aristotle built on the work of his teacher, Plato, by developing political philosophy. Aristotle meticulously evaluated the many systems of governance that existed in the numerous Greek city-states and classified them into three groups based on the number of ruling elites: many (democracy/polity), few (oligarchy/aristocracy), and a single person (tyranny, or: autocracy/monarchy). The Roman Republic In Italy, Rome was a city-state surrounded by powerful neighbors since the 13th century BCE; Etruscans had founded city-states throughout central Italy, and in the south, Greek colonies. The Assemblies elected a king to reign over Rome. However, societal instability and external pressures culminated to the deposition of the last king, Lucius Junius Brutus, by a group of aristocrats in 510 BCE. The battle between the governing families and the rest of the populace remained despite the adoption of a new constitution. The plebeians demanded clear, documented, and secular laws. The aristocratic priests, who were the recorders and interpreters of the legislation, utilized their monopoly to prevent societal change by keeping their records private. After a protracted period of resistance to the new demands, the Senate sent a committee of three patricians to Greece in 454 BCE to examine and report on Solon's and other legislators' legislation. When they returned in 451 BCE, the Assembly chose ten men – the decemviri – to write a new code and handed them absolute power in Rome for two years. This commission, led by a staunch reactionary named Appius Claudius, turned Rome's old customary law into Twelve Tables, which they presented to the Assembly (which passed them with some amendments) and placed in the Forum for all to read. The Twelve Tables established some privileges, and by the 4th century BCE, the plebes had been granted the right to stand for consulship and other major offices of the state. Different forms and practices under the name of democracy have been evolving ever since and up till the present day there is a great debate on what democracy is in practice. 2. The Macedonian wars under Alexander the Great from 336-323 BC One of the most important wars in the ancient history of Europe is the Macedonian wars under Alexander the Great. They were a series of wars, fought over a span of thirteen years. It was carried out by King Alexander III of Macedon (Alexander "The Great"). Following the assassination of his father, King Philip II, Alexander became King of Macedonia. During his reign, Philip unified the majority of the city-states of mainland Greece (under Macedonian authority) into the Hellenic League (also known as the League of Corinth). 56 Alexander then proceeded to cement Macedonian control by putting down a rebellion in the southern Greek city-states, as well as staging a brief but brutal expedition against the northern nations. He subsequently moved east to carry out his intentions to capture the Achaemenid Persian Empire, which was headed by Darius III at the time. His victories included Anatolia, Syria, Phoenicia, Judea, Gaza, Egypt, Mesopotamia, Persia and Bactria. He extended the boundaries of his empire as far as Taxila, India (now Pakistan). After his death, Alexander had established plans for military and commercial expansion into the Arabian Peninsula, after which he intended to turn his soldiers to the west (Carthage, Rome, and the Iberian Peninsula). After Alexander's death, however, his diadochi (rival generals, families, and allies) quietly abandoned these intentions. Instead, after a few years following Alexander's death, the Diadochi began fighting amongst them and divided the Empire amongst them, resulting in a 40-year conflict. 3. The Rise and fall of the Roman Empire Beginning in the 8th century B.C., Ancient Rome grew from a small town on central Italy’s Tiber River into an empire that at its peak encompassed most of continental Europe, Britain, much of western Asia, northern Africa and the Mediterranean islands. Among the many legacies of Roman dominance are the widespread use of the Romance languages (Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese and Romanian) derived from Latin, the modern Western alphabet and calendar and the emergence of Christianity as a major world religion. After 450 years as a republic, Rome became an empire in the wake of Julius Caesar’s rise and fall in the first century B.C. The long and triumphant reign of its first emperor, Augustus, began a golden age of peace and prosperity; by contrast, the Roman Empire’s decline and fall by the fifth century A.D. was one of the most dramatic implosions in the history of human civilization. 57  Ancient Rome expanded from a small town on the Tiber River in central Italy to an empire that spanned much of continental Europe, Britain, much of western Asia, northern Africa, and the Mediterranean islands beginning in the ninth century B.C. Following Julius Caesar's rise, Rome became an empire. The Roman Empire's lengthy and glorious reign of its first emperor, Augustus, began a golden age of peace and prosperity; on the other hand, the Roman Empire's downfall and fall by the fifth century A.D. was one of the most catastrophic implosions in human history. Several Roman legends are told about the origin and foundation of Rome usually by Romulus and Remus the twins, but historically they are not authenticated. Another myth claims that Aeneas was the only prominent Trojan hero who survived the Greek destruction of Troy in Homer's Iliad. He and his successors would rule the Trojans, but Greek academics suggested that Aeneas and his troops relocated because there was no record of such a dynasty in Troy. A few Greek historians speculated that Aeneas settled at Rome, which was still a minor city-state at the time. Rome began to spread within the Italian peninsula in the fourth century B.C., and as the Romans came into closer contact with the Greeks, they adopted the idea that Aeneas played a role in the founding of their great city. The Aeneas myth was elaborated by the Roman poet Virgil in his epic poem the Aeneid, which recounted of Aeneas' journey to Rome in the first century B.C. Furthermore, Augustus, the first Roman emperor and emperor during Virgil's time, was supposed to be descended from Aeneas, as was Julius Caesar, his great-uncle and predecessor as Roman ruler. Beginning in the eighth century B.C., Ancient Rome grew from a small town on central Italy’s Tiber River into an empire that at its peak encompassed most of continental Europe, Britain, much of western Asia, northern Africa and the Mediterranean islands. Of Roman dominance in Europe we still see the use of the Romance languages (Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese and Romanian) derived from Latin, the modern Western alphabet and calendar and the emergence of Christianity as a major world religion. 58  In 450 B.C., the first Roman law code was inscribed on 12 bronze tablets–known as the Twelve Tables–and publicly displayed in the Roman Forum. These laws included issues of legal procedure, civil rights and property rights and provided the basis for all future Roman civil law. By around 300 B.C., real political power in Rome was centered in the Senate, which at the time included only members of patrician and wealthy plebeian families. During the early republic, the Roman state grew exponentially in both size and power. At the same time, Rome also spread its influence east, defeating King Philip V of Macedonia in the Macedonian Wars and turning his kingdom into another Roman province. Rome’s military conquests led directly to its cultural growth as a society, as the Romans benefited greatly from contact with such advanced cultures as the Greeks. The first Roman literature appeared around 240 B.C., with translations of Greek classics into Latin; Romans would eventually adopt much of Greek art, philosophy and religion. Internal Struggles in the Late Republic Rome’s complex political institutions began to crumble under the weight of the growing empire, ushering in an era of internal turmoil and violence. The gap between rich and poor widened as wealthy landowners drove small farmers from public land, while access to government was increasingly limited to the more privileged classes. Julius Caesar’s Rise After earning military glory in Spain, Caesar returned to Rome to vie for the consulship in 59 B.C. From his alliance with Pompey and Crassus, Caesar received the governorship of three wealthy provinces in Gaul beginning in 58 B.C.; he then set about conquering the rest of the region for Rome. Less than a year later, Julius Caesar was murdered on the ides of March (March 15, 44 B.C.) by a group of his generals (led by nobles Marcus Junius Brutus and Gaius Cassius). Consul Mark Antony and Caesar’s great-nephew and adopted heir, Octavian, joined forces to crush Brutus and Cassius and divided power in Rome with ex-consul Lepidus in what was known as the Second Triumvirate. With Octavian leading the western provinces, Antony the east. In 31 B.C., Octavian triumped over the forces of Antony and Queen Cleopatra of Egypt in the Battle of Actium. In the wake of this devastating defeat, Antony and Cleopatra committed suicide. By 29 B.C., Octavian was the sole leader of Rome and all its provinces. To avoid meeting Caesar’s fate, he made sure to make his position as absolute ruler acceptable to the public by apparently restoring the political institutions of the Roman republic while in reality retaining all real power for himself. In 27 B.C., Octavian assumed the title of Augustus, becoming the first emperor of Rome. Augustus’ rule restored morale in Rome after a century of discord and corruption and ushered in the famous pax Romana–two full centuries of peace and prosperity. Christianity in Rome 59  At the Council of Nicaea in 325, Constantine made Christianity Rome’s official religion. Constantine emerged from the ensuing power struggles as sole emperor of a reunified Rome in 324. He moved the Roman capital to the Greek city of Byzantium, which he renamed Constantinople. 30 years after his death the eastern and western empires were again divided. Despite its continuing battle against Persian forces, the eastern Roman Empire–later known as the Byzantine Empire–would remain largely intact for centuries to come. An entirely different story played out in the west, where the empire was wracked by internal conflict as well as threats from abroad–particularly from the Germanic tribes. Rome eventually collapsed under the weight of its own bloated empire, losing its provinces one by one: Britain around 410; Spain and northern Africa by 430. This was the bringing of an ignoble end to the long, tumultuous history of ancient Rome. The fall of the eastern Roman Empire was complete with the fall of Constantinople by Mohmed II of the Ottoman Empire in 1453. 4. The Crusades The end of the 11th century saw the beginning of the Crusades, the series of holy wars waged by European Christians against Muslims in the Near East from 1095 to 1291. The Crusades were a series of religious wars between Christians and Muslims started primarily to secure control of holy sites considered sacred by both groups. In all, eight major Crusade expeditions occurred between 1095 and 1291. How it started By the end of the 11th century, Western Europe had emerged as a significant power in its own right, though it still lagged behind other Mediterranean civilizations, such as that of the Byzantine Empire (formerly the eastern half of the Roman Empire) and the Islamic Empire of the Middle East and North Africa. However, Byzantium had lost considerable territory to the invading Seljuk Turks. In 1095, Alexius sent envoys to Pope Urban II asking for mercenary troops from the West to help confront the Turkish threat. Though relations between Christians in the East and West had long been fractious, Alexius’s request came at a time when the situation was improving. In November 1095, at the Council of Clermont in southern France, the Pope called on Western Christians to take up arms to aid the Byzantines and recapture the Holy Land from Muslim control. This marked the beginning of the Crusades. Pope Urban’s plea was met with a tremendous response, both among the military elite as well as ordinary citizens. Those who joined the armed pilgrimage wore a cross as a symbol of the Church. The Crusades set the stage for several religious knightly military orders, including the Knights Templar, the Teutonic Knights, and the Hospitallers. These groups defended the Holy Land and protected pilgrims traveling to and from the region. In the 1st crusade: Encamping before Jerusalem in June 1099, the Christians forced the besieged city’s governor to surrender by mid-July. In the 3rd crusade (1187-92): After numerous attempts by the Crusaders of Jerusalem to capture Egypt, Nur al-Din’s forces (led by the general Shirkuh and his nephew, Saladin) seized Cairo in 1169 and forced the Crusader army to evacuate. In 1187, Saladin began a major 60 campaign against the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem. His troops virtually destroyed the Christian army at the battle of Hattin, taking back the important city along with a large amount of territory. In the 4th crusade 1204. : the Crusaders declared war on Constantinople, and the Fourth Crusade ended with the devastating Fall of Constantinople in , marked by a bloody conquest, looting and near-destruction of the magnificent Byzantine capital later that year. The last crusades: As the Crusaders struggled, a new dynasty, known as the Mamluks, descended from former slaves of the Islamic Empire, took power in Egypt. In 1260, Mamluk forces in Palestine managed to halt the advance of the Mongols, an invading force led by Genghis Khan and his descendants, which had emerged as a potential ally for the Christians in the region. Under the ruthless Sultan Baybars, the Mamluks demolished Antioch in 1268. In response, Louis organized the Eighth Crusade in 1270. The initial goal was to aid the remaining Crusader states in Syria, but the mission was redirected to Tunis, where Louis died. Edward I of England took on another expedition in 1271. This battle, which is often grouped with the Eighth Crusade but is sometimes referred to as the Ninth Crusade, accomplished very little and was considered the last significant crusade to the Holy Land. Effects of the Crusades While the Crusades ultimately resulted in defeat for Europeans and a Muslim victory, many argue that they successfully extended the reach of Christianity and Western civilization. The Roman Catholic Church experienced an increase in wealth, and the power of the Pope was elevated after the Crusades ended. Trade and transportation also improved throughout Europe as a result of the Crusades. The wars created a constant demand for supplies and transportation, which resulted in ship- building and the manufacturing of various supplies. After the Crusades, there was a heightened interest in travel and learning throughout