Sophocles and Euripides Overview

Sophocles (c. 490 - c. 406 BCE)

• Lived during the Athenian Empire's peak, when they controlled the Delian League and its wealth.
• His works, like Oedipus Rex, presented a complex view of the gods, questioning their actions in human affairs.
• Sophocles explored the concept of tragic irony in Oedipus Rex, showcasing how a character unknowingly fulfills a prophecy.
• His portrayal of the gods contrasted with Aeschylus's more positive view of divine intervention.

Euripides (c. 480 - c. 405 BCE)

• Lived during the Peloponnesian War, a conflict between Athens and Sparta.
• His plays presented more skeptical views of the gods, depicting them as indifferent or cruel.
• Euripides explored the human psyche in a way that was uncommon for the time. This involved more complex and well-developed female characters.
• The plays resonate with modern audiences because of their depth of character and portrayal of human struggles. His work contrasted with the optimistic portrayals of the gods evident in earlier Greek tragedies.

Socrates (469-399 BCE)

• A significant figure in Western philosophy, whose ideas were documented by his student, Plato.
• Developed the Socratic method, emphasizing critical thinking and dialogue as tools to uncover truth.
• Focused on ethical concepts—justice, virtue, nature of knowledge—linking knowledge to virtuous behaviour.
• Condemned to death by Athenian court on charges impacting the youth.

Isocrates (436-338 BCE)

• Was an Athenian educator, rhetorician, and writer, advocating for rhetoric in politics.
• Unlike other philosophers, he emphasized practical rhetoric.
• His focus was on civic virtue, education and rhetoric to promote good citizenship.

Thucydides (c. 460-404 BCE)

• A Greek historian, notable for his accurate and objective approach to historical writing.
• Known for "History of the Peloponnesian War."
• Analysed the war's causes and events and explored themes of power, politics, and human behaviour and their consequences of decisions.

Hellenistic Context & Origins

• Hellenism refers to the spread of Greek influence after Alexander's conquests and expansion throughout the Mediterranean.
• This period marked a shift from the independent city-state model to larger empires.
• The spread of Greek culture across expanded areas resulted in significant cultural and political transformations.

Changes in Greek Society

• Shift from independent city-states to large empires and cosmopolitan societies.
• Decline in citizen participation, with monarchies emerging as a dominant form of governance.
• Religious beliefs and practices were altered or adapted as Greeks interacted with other cultures.

Ionian Revolt (499 BCE)

• An uprising of Ionian Greeks against Persian rule.
• Athens supported the revolt, incurring the wrath of Darius I (Persian King), leading to conflict.

Battle of Marathon (490 BCE)

• A critical battle during the first Persian invasion of Greece.
• Despite facing larger Persian forces, Athenians achieved a decisive victory.
• This victory boosted Athenian morale and marked an important turning point in Greek history, proving the effectiveness of their hoplite warfare.

The Delian League

• Formed after the Persian Wars to deter further Persian invasions.
• Initially focused on Delos, but Athens eventually gained control, transforming it into an Athenian empire.

The March of the Ten Thousand (401-399 BCE)

• 10,000 Greek soldiers helped a Persian prince to overthrow his older brother, documented by Xenophon.
• The mercenaries showcased the resilience of the Greek soldiers and continued to push further east.

Alexander the Great (336-323 BCE)

• Became king of Macedon after his father's assassination.
• Known for his strategic brilliance and military genius, leading an enormous empire.
• Spread Greek influence extensively across the Ancient World.
• Conquests expanded Greek civilization.
• His death led to the division of his empire among his generals, and further spread of Greek culture.