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Global City Dynamics: Intersecting Cultures and Economic Forces in Urban Landscapes "Global cities are the pulsating centers of human civilization, where ideas transcend borders and cultures blend harmoniously." - Angela Merkel Inte...

Global City Dynamics: Intersecting Cultures and Economic Forces in Urban Landscapes "Global cities are the pulsating centers of human civilization, where ideas transcend borders and cultures blend harmoniously." - Angela Merkel Intended Learning Outcomes: At the end of this chapter, students are expected to: 1. Gain a fuller and a more solid understanding about the concept of a Global City and the other ideas associated with it. 2. Be able to analyze the importance and significance of the Global City in the realm of economic, political and socio cultural dimensions of the contemporary global setting. 3. Be able to correlate the Concept of a Global City within the greater construct of Globalization. 4. Equip students with 21st century learning and develop higher order thinking skills that will lead towards a deeper understanding of the subject matter and correlate the topic with the Philippines. The city as we know it has changed dramatically over the course of time. Apparent changes in technology, cultural exchanges and migration as well as economic progress and personal social mobility has changed the concept of a city. Cities are ecosystems for businesses and innovation. The strength of an urban center’s network of businesses, the talent of its citizenry, the stability of political institutions, and the creativity of cultural organizations all contribute to an environment in which existing businesses flourish and new businesses are born. (Kearney, 2017). With the onslaught of Globalization, we are introduced to a more profound concept, that of the Global city. Within the past two decades, the city has emerged as a critical site for analyzing dynamic and dialectic articulations of global and local processes. An expanding body of work has shown that an emerging global system of production, finance, telecommunications, culture, and politics is being socially and spatially articulated through a worldwide network of cities ( Scott, 2001). It is necessary to highlight the important role of cities in the world economy and how it has received increasing attention even among scholars who try to study its dynamics like (Beaverstock et al., 2002; Derudder et al., 2010; Sassen, 2001; Taylor, 2001). The fact remains that major cities function as command and control nodes in the global reach of large corporations and have been coined as “global cities” (Friedmann, 1986; Sassen, 1996). In addition, it should be borne in mind that urban processes and politics are not only expressing but also re-working and re-shaping the processes of globalization on the ground. While cities are becoming more porous to global forces, national and local actors are taking an active interest and initiative in restructuring their cities as globally competitive places. This meeting of the global and the local has made cities mediums and arenas of globalization wherein global, national, and local processes and forces encounter each other, merge, and create a new politics of place-making under the conditions of globalizing capitalism (Genis, 2007). Apparently, this is how Global cities affect the continuing saga of Globalization. What is a Global City?  First and foremost, it is warranted that a definition of a Global City be advanced. A Global city, also known by other terminologies as “alpha city” or “world center” is a city regarded as a primary node in the global economic network (Alderson and Beckfield, 2004). By and large, a Global city according to Brenner (1998), pertains to an urban centre that enjoys significant competitive advantages and that serves as a hub within a globalized economic system. It emanates from the idea that globalization is created, facilitated, and enacted in strategic geographic locales ( cities) according to a hierarchy of importance to the operation of the global system of finance and trade (Smith, 2003). In effect, a global city serves as an important focal point for business, global trade, finance, tourism and globalization to exist ( Sassen, 1994). File Photo: London, One of the most prominent Global Cities (photo courtesy of defence.pk.com) The term has its origins in research on cities carried out during the 1980s, which examined the common characteristics of the world’s most important cities. However, with increased attention being paid to processes of globalization during subsequent years, these world cities came to be known as global cities. Linked with globalization was the idea of spatial reorganization and the hypothesis that cities were becoming key loci within global networks of production, finance, and telecommunications (Taylor, 2001).  In some formulations of the global city thesis, then, such cities are seen as the building blocks of globalization. Simultaneously, these cities were becoming newly privileged sites of local politics within the context of a broader project to reconfigure state institutions. File Photo: Hongkong as an Asian Global City (Source: moneycnn.com) Global cities are the highly globalised and competitive metropolitan economies with the deepest and most settled concentrations of firms, capital and talent. Six cities stand out. The ‘Big Six’ include the traditional ‘super cities’ of London, New York, Paris and Tokyo, but more recently this quartet has been joined by Hong Kong and Singapore. They have significant competitive advantages, but nonetheless are vulnerable to other dynamic gateway cities that are well positioned to capture spill-over demand, notably Seoul, Toronto and Sydney and, over the longer term, Shanghai. The illustration below shows the typology of the order of cities by classification.  Source: Cities Research Center, 2015 There have been various researches made in the past regarding the realm of a Global city like Friedman who pioneered it in the 1980s but a more solid and grounded attempt to carefully appraise and analyze the concept could be attributed to Saskia Sassen. Sassen is the leading urban theorist of the global world. Her work , The Global City: New York, London, Tokyo (1991) has shaped the concepts and methods that other theorists have used to analyze the role of cities and their networks in the contemporary world. File Photo: Saskia Sassen, a pioneer and expert in Global city studies ( cnn.org.uk)  Quite integral to Sassen's concept of the global city is an emphasis on the flow of information and capital. She argued that cities are major nodes in the interconnected systems of information and money, and the wealth that they capture is intimately related to the specialized businesses that facilitate those flows - financial institutions, consulting firms, accounting firms, law firms, and media organizations. Sassen points out that these flows are no longer tightly bound to national boundaries and systems of regulation; so the dynamics of the global city are dramatically different than those of the great cities of the nineteenth century. This means that the concept of a Global city eludes the national level in which the city is located geographically but rather exudes a more global character because of the interconnected and integrated platforms of its activities that surely impacts the global realm. Essential Traits of a Global City We now turn the focus of discussion into what essentially characterizes a Global city. This will provide a better hindsight as to how Global cities exist and operate. These are as follows: 1. There is an apparent presence of a variety of international financial services notably in finance, insurance, real estate, banking, accountancy, and marketing. - Financial institutions are indispensible for global cities in as much as trade, commerce and finance is almost second nature to these cities. We have to bear in mind that these cities are important hubs of global trade and economy and this explains the reason why banking and financial service providers are all the more important to sustain the demand for exchange and financial mobility ( Knox and Taylor, 1995).  2. Headquarters of several multinational corporations - Global cities are preferred locations for multinational corporation (MNC) investment because they host advanced producer services (such as marketing, accounting and finance), their cosmopolitan environments, and their interconnectedness to the international market place. Yet, like MNCs, global cities are not a homogenous group and individual firms make unique choices to locate their operations in idiosyncratic global cities. ( Belderbos et.al, n.d). The idea that Global cities serves the trade and financial interests as well as image of an MNC makes it a unique destination , a preferred locale of choice for some of the world’s most established MNC’s. 3. The existence of financial headquarters, a stock exchange, and major financial institutions - At the heart of global cities are financial transactions that beat at every turn. The proximity and accessibility of banking, stock exchange and other financial institutions are a key element in the growth and proliferation of global cities. \ 4. Domination of the trade and economy of a large surrounding area Global cities are dominant business and commercial hubs where capital and investment flow operates at a massive scale. Just as ancient cities have become important economic centers of antiquity, global cities are the necessary trading and commercial hubs of the Information age. With high levels of information exchange, these cities are often located in countries with some of the most stable governments and economies in their regions and are typically cultural centers in countries with younger and more liberal populations. Many of these city governments fund seed accelerators or have grants that attract the attention of multinational companies seeking to tap into and grow the ecosystem. Tel Aviv, for example, has one of the highest start-up densities in the world with a strong entrepreneurial spirit and 300 multinational R&D centers. Berlin, too, is a growing regional hub, welcoming start-ups from London and Paris that seek the city’s lower costs, openness to other nationalities, and legacy of creativity. Finally, Bangalore has become a center for young tech workers in India, with entrepreneurial success stories in diverse industries from e-commerce to healthcare (Taylor et.al, 2011). 5. Major manufacturing centers with port and container facilities - Most global cities like Hongkong possess massive port and container infrastructures to facilitate further international commerce and trade. File Photo: Busy Hongkong port area (Source: cnn.com) 6. Considerable decision-making power on a daily basis and at a global level  - Global cities possess the capacity to create an immediate impact with its decisions, actions and policy directions. This is because of their importance in the global economic field that their respective decisions whether political, economic or even socio – cultural possess a relatively huge global appeal. 7. Centers of new ideas and innovation in business, economics, culture, and politics - Smith (2003) opined that the trailblazing and pioneering spirit of Global cities will always be present due to the conglomeration of people present as well as the architecture for development that is firmly established including numerous research and development facilities. 8. Focal point of media and communications for global networks - Chalaby (2005) suggests that media conglomerates have adopted new organizational structures, within which headquarters grant affiliates increased autonomy, strengthen their specialization, and connect them into an interdependent corporate network.Such a strategy aims to achieve global reach and efficiency while ensuring responsiveness to the requirements of local markets. Castells (2009,) similarly argues that "only global networks can master the resources required in global media production, but their ability to conquer market shares depends on the adaptation of their content to the taste of local audiences" 9. Dominance of the national region with great international significance - The dominance of the global city over the national region is very much evident nowadays. Demographics have played a role. A century ago, roughly 10 percent of the world’s population lived in cities. Now, at a minimum, more than 50 percent of the world’s population is urbanized, a number that is  expected to grow to more than 60 percent by 2030. In addition, structural shifts in the global economy, changes in the nature of international challenges and improved intercity organizational techniques have all combined to elevate cities on the global stage ( Klaus , 2017). This explains the reason why when one talks about a country, say Japan, one could easily associate it with a major city like Tokyo, or when a person goes to US, New York is a top of the mind destination. Indeed, Economic, technological and networking changes wrought by globalization have made cities the center of our nation states in almost all aspects. 10. High percentage of residents employed in the services sector and information sector - The presence of technologically driven businesses also necessitates that employment patterns in most global cities be directed towards a manpower capital pool that is also information oriented. This explains why the demand for business and IT related graduated is relatively large especially for most global cities. In addition, the attractiveness to most tourists of global cities also requires services requirements especially in the Tourism and Hotel Industries (Robinson, 2006). File Photo: Singapore IT industry ( Source : infonhpr.org) 11. High-quality educational institutions, including renowned universities, international student attendance and research facilities Global cities are destination of choice especially for higher learning and more engaged scholarship. Global cities possess very commendable literacy rates and is usually the locale of highly renowned universities. Paris, Hong Kong, Singapore and Tokyo all have very strong records of domestic educational attainment, including in core subjects such as Math and Science. London and New York’s model relies somewhat more on external talent, and consequently they have a higher share of foreign born citizens than their peers (35%+). The instruction and research backbones of these institutions are indeed very strong which also paves the way for academe- industry linkages thus furthering the growth and mobility of most global cities. Strongest in the human capital dimension, these cities have a dominant business sector that often develops as a result of robust university systems that produce technically trained professionals in that particular industry. Boston, for example, has a longstanding focus on biotech and some of the country’s— and the world’s—best universities. Montreal’s emerging start-up ecosystem, largely developing from the robotics program at the Université de Montréal, specializes in artificial intelligence. And Moscow’s universities produce highly trained technical engineers who are prepared to work on IT solutions such as big data and cloud technology. (Kearney, 2017). File Photo: Ecole Polytechnique, one of the best universities in Paris (Source: cnn.com)  File Photo: National University of Singapore (Source: nus.edu) 12. Multi-functional infrastructure offering some of the best legal, medical, and entertainment facilities in the world. - The growth and development in most Global cities also enables these locales to be important destinations of some of the most prestigious legal and medical services to be established. The medical advancements especially in medical research are housed in some of the most sophisticated medical research hubs found in these global cities. In addition, the infrastructures, ease and effective transportation have also made these global cities as entertainment and tourism capitals. 13. High diversity in language, culture, religion, and ideologies - The cultural dynamics of global cities can be partly seen in the presence of Urban spaces. The culture of cities manifests itself in the materiality of streets, buildings, or signs. Urban space is also the site of multiple rites and practices that range from spirituality and artistic performances to daily life. The fluidity of global cities allows their inhabitants to engage in creative processes of cultural experimentation, performing a continuous back-and-forth movement between hybridization and pluralization. The former creates enough homogeneity for the expatriates to feel targeted; the latter ensures a level of  cultural diversity necessary to satisfy their cosmopolitan aspirations ( Klaus, 2017). Flashpoints on the Concept of a Global City Sassen (2001) presents her hypotheses for a Global city and its increasing role in the economics aspect of a nation- state as follows : Seven fundamental “Global city” hypotheses 1. The geographic dispersal of economic activities that marks globalization, along with the simultaneous integration of such geographically dispersed activities, is a key factor feeding the growth and importance of central corporate functions. 2. These central functions become so complex that increasingly the headquarters of large global firms outsource them: they buy a share of their central functions from highly specialized service firms. 3. Those specialized service firms engaged in the most complex and globalized markets are subject to agglomeration economies. 4. The more headquarters outsource their most complex, un -standardized functions, particularly those subject to uncertain and changing markets, the freer they are to opt for any location. 5. These specialized service firms need to provide a global service which has meant a global network of affiliates... and a strengthening of cross border city-to-city transactions and networks. 6. The economic fortunes of these cities become increasingly disconnected from their broader hinterlands or even their national economies. 7. One result of the dynamics described in hypothesis six, is the growing informalization of a range of economic activities which find their effective demand in  these cities, yet have profit rates that do not allow them to compete for various resources with the high-profit making firms at the top of the system. As opined by Little (n.d), three key tendencies seem to follow from these structural facts about global cities. One is a concentration of wealth in the hands of owners, partners, and professionals associated with the high-end firms in this system. Second is a growing disconnection between the city and its region. And third is the growth of a large marginalized population that has a very hard time earning a living in the marketplace defined by these high- end activities. Rather than constituting an economic engine that gradually elevates the income and welfare of the whole population, the modern global city funnels global surpluses into the hands of a global elite dispersed over a few dozen global cities. These tendencies seem to line up well with several observable features of modern urban life throughout much of the world: a widening separation in quality of life between a relatively small elite and a much larger marginalized population; a growth of high-security gated communities and shopping areas; and dramatically different graphs of median income for different socioeconomic groups. New York, London, and Hong Kong/Shanghai represent a huge concentration of financial and business networks, and the concentration of wealth that these produce is manifest. These features of the global city economic system imply a widening set of inequalities between elite professionals and specialists and the larger urban population of service and industrial workers (Geniş,2007). They also imply a widening set of inequalities between North and South. Sassen's conceptual architecture maintains a place for location and space: global cities are not disembodied, and the functioning of their global firms depends on a network of activities and lesser firms within the spatial scope of the city and its environs. So Sassen believes there is space for political contest between parties over the division of the global surplus. Sassen explores the impact of globalization at the micro-level, and in particular its consequences for the people living in these cities; from the highly specialized workers of legal, accounting, and advertising firms, to the powerless, ‘invisible’ individuals who live on the fringes, such as migrant and low-wage workers and the homeless or disadvantaged ( Leorke, n.d).  If we consider that global cities concentrate both the leading sectors of global capital and a growing share of disadvantaged populations (immigrants, many of the disadvantaged women, people of color generally, and, in the megacities of developing countries, masses of shanty dwellers) then we can see that cities have become a strategic terrain for a whole series of conflicts and contradictions. In the next topic, our discussion brings us to how migration, mobility and the global city are intertwined (Dematteis, 2000). Migration, Mobility and the Global City We have discussed previously how Global cities act as important hubs for economic, political and even cultural exchanges. The lights and sounds of the city has definitely lured people to settle in various global cities either to find a more stable and gainful employment amidst a more conducive environment for raising families. The rise of Globalization, in a massive scale has influenced the creation of the Global city has also created avenues for people to migrate (Hall and Pain, 2006). It is important now to look into how migration and people mobility exists in the Global city. In this era of globalization, the world is now ‘borderless’ in which capital, information and production can be moved across national border seamlessly. While globalization has blurred the distinction between countries, the flow of economic resources, such as human capital and financial capital, has become easier than ever before. In effect, globalization redefines the relationships between economic production and territoriality, social processes and institutions. This borderless realm has also contributed to the rise of migration into global cities. The contention is held that without the contribution by international migrants, a person who moves from one place to another to seek a better living (Anderson, 2015), global cities might not be as impactful as they are in the development of the global economy. Global cities are attractive to firms due to the possibility of being able to tap a diverse pool of highly skilled labor, including the expatriate ( Brenner,1998). File Photo: Shibuya Crossing in Japan (Source: edmansfiles.com.jpn). But to what extent has the development of the Global city affected migration? To begin with, according to Sassen (1991), the geography of globalization consists both a dynamic dispersal and centralization. With globalization, the increasing spatial dispersal of economic activities at metropolitan, national, and global level has contributed to the need of a new territorial centralization of top-level management and central corporate functions. As those central corporate functions, such as human resources, technology, compliance, are becoming more complex, many large global firms outsource them to highly specialized firms. To benefit from agglomeration economies, these transnational companies would operate in global cities, where they are closely clustered with specialized service firms. In urban economics, firms can achieve economies of scales and network effects when agglomerating with each other; with more firms of related business engage in the clustering of economic activity, cost of production decreases, hence increasing returns to scale (Glaeser, 2011). As such, both the large global firm and the specialized service firm could benefit in operating closely in global cities. When those specialized firms provide global services, their global network is strengthened. In the long-run, this business practice would positively impact the global economy, since people’s employment is secured, and at the same time, both firms who engage in the international trade in services would be benefited. Therefore, it is clear that global cities are central to the development of the global economy in general and employment –oriented migration in particular (Alderson, et.al (2010). Nowadays, many large corporations invest substantially in corporate technology to streamline their businesses. As such, technology-consulting companies, such as Accenture, IBM, receive plenty of business opportunities (Taylor, 2004). Other than outsourcing, many TNCs choose to near-shore or offshore their central corporate functions to save cost and most importantly, avoid the risk of customer’s data leak. A near- shoring example would be Deutsche Bank and Morgan Stanley operating in Birmingham and Glasgow respectively, where their technology and compliance centers are located due to the lower operating cost, compared to that of London, the global city. Additionally, many financial institutions offshore their technology function to Bangalore – Silicon Valley of India. While off shoring can benefit the global economy, as it provides job security for employees in the offshore- offices, over-reliance on certain type of services i.e. technology would hinder the long-term development of a country. It could be argued that such pigeonholing is a form of division of labor and economies of scale, through which employees can do what they do best, and at the same time, the employers can operate at a better cost-level. Equally importantly, the off shoring business could provide a better standard of living for people in the developing countries like India; nevertheless, this may lead to wealth inequality between the offshore city and the rest of the country, for instance, 39.93% of people in Chhattisgarh are living below poverty line, which is almost double than that of Karnataka (the state of Bangalore) with 20.91% (Reserve Bank of India, 2014). Without the contribution by international migrants, a person who moves from one place to another to seek a better living , Anderson,(2015) suggests that global cities might not be as impactful as they are in the development of the global economy. As suggested by (Findlay, Li, Jowett and Skeldon, 1996), global cities are attractive to firms due to the possibility of being able to tap a diverse pool of highly skilled labor, including the expatriate. Nowadays, ‘diversity’ (in any form, e.g. racial, gender, cultural) has become one of the ‘corporate values’ for many TNCs ( Transnational Corporations). Companies tend to hire more people from different backgrounds. In particular, highly skilled migrants, such as senior or middle management, are popular in the labor market. To evaluate, the impact of highly skilled migrants in global cities is also determined upon the business needs in that particular city. In Hong Kong’s asset wealth management industry, there used to be a significant presence of the non-Chinese or expatriates in the pre-handover colonial time before 1997, working as portfolio managers or private bankers to serve the foreign or British tycoons who reside in the city. However, in modern times, given the rise of Chinese’s wealth, those highly skilled international migrants, i.e. non-Chinese private bankers, are forced to leave Hong Kong, since investment banks tend to hire Chinese-speaking private bankers to serve their new targeted customers i.e. the Chinese tycoons. As such, the impact of the highly skilled migrants (in this case, the non-Chinese-speaking private bankers) in global city (i.e. Hong Kong) is dependent on the business needs and the clients’ expectation (Taylor, 2001). In global cities, lowly skilled migrants are equally attractive. For example, in Hong Kong, physical- based occupations like security guards and construction workers employ plenty of migrants from the Southeast Asian countries due to the lack of the supply of labor in those business sectors. Regardless of their aspiration, whether it is to seek permanent residency or to purely earn a better living, these lowly skilled workers have undoubtedly contributed much to the local city, as being part of the labor force in that particular sector. However, the impact of international migrants in global cities also depends on the work nature and the skill set requirement of that particular job. Taking the financial services intuitions in London as example, while TNCs hope to recruit more international migrants to boost their ‘diversity ratio’, many of the recruited international migrants are based on non-client facing roles like the middle or back office in investment banks ( Lam, 2016). In effect, the argument holds that since the opportunities are present and well defined in most global cities, the tendency for migration to increase in these areas over time is also very apparent and most likely to happen. Global City and Mobility An increasing migration tendency and the desire to live in the cities bring several problems closely knit to urbanization. One of these concerns mobility of people. By 2050, 70 percent of the people on earth will live in cities. And if current trends continue, those people are likely to face even more crowded conditions, polluted air, and overburdened infrastructures than we do today. Urbanization statistics warn us that the quality of life in many cities will be decided by the degree to which major cities can implement intelligent, sustainable transport solutions. Traffic indeed a problem especially in highly populated cities. Traffic congestion is increasingly becoming a global issue, with drivers spending nearly 50% of their driving time in traffic in some cities around the world. The Philippines is no exception. In Manila, traffic is worsening and according to a study done by the Boston Consulting Group, motorists and commuters get stuck in traffic for an average of 66 minutes daily. The said study conducted in 2017 places Metro Manila 3rd worst in the South East Asian region, with an average of 66 minutes stuck in traffic daily. It comes after Bangkok, Thailand, which is said to have the worst traffic (72 minutes), and 2nd worst Jakarta, Indonesia (68 minutes). The worsening traffic in Metro Manila now costs P3.5 billion in lost opportunities per day, highlighting the need for new and modern infrastructure to ease congestion according to a study made by Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA). The best performers in terms of traffic are Singapore (30 minutes) and Hong Kong (35 minutes), two Asian states considered as global cities.  File photo: Singapore traffic (Source: cnn.sg.com) It gets worse for Manila residents during rush hours however. The illustration below shows the traffic conditions during peak hours of travel Source: BCG Uber Survey , 2017 Photo: Rush Hour Traffic in EDSA courtesy of gmanetworktv.com Investing in Public Transit Banning cars may mitigate the traffic conditions but is not at all an effective solution. One consideration is by investing on Public railways (Brenner, 1998). Most alpha cities possess a very elaborate yet so effective mass transport system. One has to look into the MTR of Hongkong or the MRT of Taiwan and the generalization could be made how an efficient mass train system can effectively lessen road traffic. The city of Riyadh in Saudi Arabia is a good example of the tremendous efforts that are being made in this area. Riyadh, which has five million inhabitants and is still rapidly growing, is now planning the world's biggest subway project, which will be 175 kilometers long ( Lam, 2016). Multilateral agencies have put forward the improvement of public infrastructure as a long-term solution to traffic congestion. The study echoes this, pointing out that Manila, Jakarta, and Ho Chi Minh have all announced plans to invest more than $60 billion in rail infrastructure by 2022. The Philippine government is trying to address the poor infrastructure situation with its Build, Build, Build campaign, which seeks to raise public spending on infrastructure from 5.3% of the gross domestic product (GDP) this year to 7.4% by 2022 in which a big chunk will be funneled down towards improving the mass transport system. MRT 7 Construction in full swing Photo courtesy of newsmb.com.ph Case In Point. Can we do a “Singapore”? by: Froilan C. Calilung It’s Sunday and I am in bed at exactly 9 P.M. prepping myself for tomorrow. Having a 7 am class in the Philippine’s Royal, Catholic and Pontifical University is something I really welcome. Well for one, I am indeed a morning person and secondly leaving my residence at 4:30 am allows me to breeze through traffic a lot easier. Coming from (Farview) Fairview , Q.C, the roads leading to Espana Blvd. is a lot friendlier at that time. I always tell myself it’s better to be in school as early as 6 am rather than arrive at exactly the same time my first class finishes. In a city where the concept of “rush hour” exists almost all the time, sometimes even way past 10 PM, (except during the holidays of course); battling traffic and defeating it has been a way of life for many workers and residents of Metro Manila especially now that traffic just went back to its pre-pandemic self. Pondering and thinking about Metro Manila traffic is a very good mental exercise. It makes you think of the so many reasons why traffic is just terrible in the city to the possible solutions that can be done to possibly mitigate it. Well, for one, transportation is a source of livelihood in the Philippines. One simply has to look at the number of jeepneys and buses plying their daily route stopping anytime they see a potential passenger and stopping again to unload passengers anywhere (even the middle of the road) as soon as somebody says the magic word “Para po”. Lack of Discipline is another problem. Some drivers change lanes like they are in some kind of a video racing game while some just don’t have the notion of traffic rules and regulations as if they just picked their driver’s license from some kind of a “mythical tree”. I remember my former professor say, “driving in the Philippines is really hard, that is why if you could drive in Manila, you could drive anywhere, and believe me, anywhere, even in the Moon”. Then, there are the pedestrians, countless times have I seen people crossing the dreaded Commonwealth Avenue amidst the speeding buses and cars and despite the presence of footbridges. As if crossing this “Killer Highway” is a kind of an adrenalin rush that pumps them as they reached the opposite side of the road (still alive of course). True, this people wantonly ignore the sign that reads: “Bawal Tumawid Dito, May Namatay na Dito”. Several years ago, I visited Singapore for a vacation with my family. It was an amazing thing to see the traffic at 7: 29 in the morning on a Monday workday as I looked out the window from the hotel where we were staying. And I just blurted out to myself, “this is exactly how a Sunday morning in Metro Manila looks like”. I reckoned and say maybe it’s just a fluke, so the following day I decided to look again and true enough, it’s exactly the same condition as it was the previous day. True, Singapore is a global city, a first class, cosmopolitan locale yet the government and the people, (and I want to include the people because traffic is not just a burden that we put on the government to solve) have found the right solution to it. The contrast is glaring. In the Philippines, reduced inflation, low interest and easy access to credit enabled the domestic automotive industry to increase sales by more than 24 percent in 2016, with total sales of 359,572 units. For 2018, the industry is expected to sell as many as 500,000 units. The figures do not include motorcycles, the sales of which reached 1 million in 2016. In 2016 a total of 11.2 million motor vehicles were registered with the Land Transportation Office (LTO), of which 2.5 million (28.7 percent) were in the National Capital Region (NCR) and 8.7 million (71.27 percent) were in other parts of the country. The number of motor vehicles plying Metro Manila’s roads continues to increase, but the road network in the metropolis has hardly increased. According to some estimates, the NCR’s road network of 4,755 kilometers should be doubled to accommodate the vehicle population. Also, we are a flood-prone country because of the 20 or so typhoons that hit us every year. Metro Manila is particularly prone to flooding because of its low altitude. Everybody knows that even a light downpour floods many streets in the metropolis, resulting in stalled traffic. Add to this the narrowing of streets caused by illegal settlements or vendors. Another problem is the development of vacant public lands, which the previous administration pursued as a revenue-generating measure. It seemed the government had declared a policy against making these vacant spaces into green public parks. Selling vacant spaces to developers means transforming the vacant spaces into malls, office buildings and other commercial structures, which further aggravate the shortage in road infrastructure. Singapore, on the other hand recently announced that no more extra vehicles would be allowed beginning February 2018. The measure complements the government’s efforts to further improve the public transport system. When the zero-growth policy takes effect, aspiring car buyers will have to wait for other drivers to surrender their certificates to apply for permission to buy cars. The city-state is already one of the world’s most expensive places to own a car. At present, the Land Transport Authority (LTA) limits the annual increase in cars and motorcycles to 0.25 percent. Under the current system, people who want to own a car in Singapore must buy a special certificate from the government, which are sold through auctions and can cost as much as $37,000. The cost of the 10-year special certificate is in addition to various taxes and import duties, which can jack up the price of a small vehicle up to $74,000. (Villar, 2017). The Philippines is a lot bigger than Singapore yet the traffic is a lot worse. Singapore has already attained one of the best traffic management in the South East Asia, yet their government still continues to execute policies that will further decrease it. While in the Philippines, the exact contrast is happening. The ease of purchasing a new vehicle has tremendously increased and lured people to purchase new vehicles with almost no down payments. And these new cars does not only clog our streets while mobile, they also do the same when parked since many people who acquired these cars do not have parking lots of their own, the streets and the sidewalks serves that purpose. While it may be true that traffic is a developmental problem, but good policies can be done to mitigate it. For as the JICA study revealed, we are losing 3.5 billion pesos of opportunities per day because of traffic. Does this sit well with our developmental goals? Certainly not. I am one with those who still hope that this can be changed for the better. I still dream of seeing Manila on a Monday morning rush hour looking a lot more like Singapore….that is if we aspire to be a truly Global city someday. Just a Quick Recap! ✓ A Global city, also known by other terminologies as “alpha city” or “world center” is a city regarded as a primary node in the global economic network. ✓ A Global city pertains to an urban centre that enjoys significant competitive advantages and that serves as a hub within a globalized economic system. ✓ The ‘Big Six’ include the traditional ‘super cities’ of London, New York, Paris and Tokyo, but more recently this quartet has been joined by Hong Kong and Singapore ✓ There are specific characteristics that are present in most global cities which also correlate to their current status as major hubs in the global economy. ✓ There are various ways to assess and analyze the performance and ranking of global cities. ✓ Global Cities affect migration and people mobility to a large extent. Global Demography: Exploring the Changing Dynamics of Population in a Globalized World  "Once it was necessary that the people should multiply and be fruitful if the race was to survive. But now to preserve the race it is necessary that people hold back the power of propagation." - Helen Keller Intended Learning Outcomes: At the end of this chapter, students are expected to: 1. Have a better understanding of the demographic patterns of the world. 2. Know how global demography affects the other aspects of our living in the current world. 3. Make the necessary correlations between Global Demography and Globalization. 4. Be able to suggest solutions to the current concerns affecting Global Demography. 5. Equip students with 21st century learning and develop higher order thinking skills that will lead towards a deeper understanding of Global Demography in the attempt to successfully correlate this concept in the case of the Philippines. In this chapter, we shall shift our focus to a very vital and truly indispensable component of Globalization, people. Demography represents the study of statistics such as births, deaths, income, or the incidence of disease, which illustrate the changing structure of human populations and thus poses an effect on globalization on a holistic level. In general, demography pertains to the composition of a particular human population. It could be argued that over the course of man’s history, demographic patterns were reasonably stable; human populations grew slowly, and the age structures, birth rates, and death rates of populations changed only gradually. This can be attributed to the fact that epidemics and pandemics had huge effects on populations, but these effects were short-lived and had little bearing on long term trends leading to the present day. It is noteworthy also to say that in the past 50 years, this trend of long-term stability has given way to the biggest demographic upheaval in history, an upheaval that is still running its course and may continue to affect demographic patterns in the long run( Bloom and Canning , 2003). In the developed world, a sharp post-war rise in fertility was followed by an equally sharp fall. These changes in fertility transformed age structures through the creation of a ‘baby boom’ generation. The term "Baby Boom" is used to identify a massive increase in births following World War II. Baby boomers are those people born worldwide between 1946 and 1964, the time frame most commonly used to define them. The first baby boomers reached the standard retirement age of 65 in 2011. (Bloom and Canning 2004). The Baby Boom circa 1946 ( Source: rarehistoricalphotos.com) The ageing of this generation and continued declines in fertility and old-age mortality are shifting the population balance in developed countries from young to old and poses significant effects to the economies of many nation states as we shall discuss further later. In addition , the developing world has experienced a population explosion, the result of improved nutrition, public health infrastructure and medical care. The rapid increase in the global population over the past few decades has resulted in large numbers of people of childbearing age. This creates ‘population momentum’, in which the populations of most countries, even those with falling birth rates, will grow for many years to come (Bloom et.al, 2003). This is particularly true of developing countries. Population changes have potentially huge implications for the pace and progress of economic development. For example, an increasing proportion of elderly may act as a drag on economic growth where smaller working populations must provide for a larger number of non-working dependents. In situations where there exists both an aging population on one end and a highly dependent one on the other, a nation states economy must prove to have a solid working median age to sustain its growth Boserup (1981). Photo caricature depicting Global Population explosion (courtesy of pinterest.com) In addition, rising life expectancy can also bolster an economy by creating a greater incentive to save and to invest in education, thereby boosting the financial capital on which investors draw and the human capital that strengthens economies. Where a country has experienced a baby boom followed by a decline in fertility, the relative size of the workforce is increased. Countries that are able to absorb the baby boom generation into productive employment can experience a rapid increase in economic growth. As Bloom et.al, (2005) opined , countries unable to take advantage of this opportunity run the risk of creating large, chronically underemployed and increasingly restive working-age populations. Patterns of Global Demographic Change The current world population of 8.4 billion is projected to increase by 1 billion over the next 12 years and reach 9.6 billion by 2050, according to a United Nations report, which points out that growth will be mainly in developing countries, with more than half in Africa. Our global population, which stood at just over 2 billion in 1950, is currently gaining new inhabitants at a rate of 76 million people a year (representing the difference, in 2005, between 134 million births and 58 million deaths). It is of importance to note here that these past and projected additions to world population have been, and will increasingly be, distributed unevenly across the world with a huge portion coming from the developing world (Bryant and Sonerson 2006). The population of the world’s 50 least-developed countries is expected to more than double by the middle of this century, with several poor countries tripling their population over the period. By contrast, the population of the developed world is expected to remain steady at around 1.2 billion, with population declines in some wealthy countries. (Bloom et al, 2015). File Photo: An overloaded train with people in India (courtesy of Allianz.com) As we shall see later, the disparity in population growth between developed and developing countries reflects the existence of considerable heterogeneity in birth, death and migration processes, both over time and across national populations, races and ethnic groups. An important consideration remains that this disparity has coincided with changes in the age-group composition of populations.  Table 1: World Population Projection Source: UN Report 2012 Crude Birth and Death Rates Birth Rate The birth rate refers to the number of live births per 1,000 individuals in a population over a specific period. It is an essential indicator of population growth and demographic changes. The current global birth rate varies significantly among countries and regions due to various socio- economic, cultural, and political factors. As of the most recent data, the global average birth rate is approximately 18.5 births per 1,000 people per year (World Bank, 2021). However, birth rates differ significantly across countries and regions. For instance, high-income countries often exhibit lower birth rates due to factors such as increased access to contraception, women's empowerment, and greater emphasis on education and career opportunities. On the other hand, many low and middle-income countries generally experience higher birth rates, influenced by factors such as limited access to family planning, cultural norms, and religious beliefs. It is crucial to note that birth rates are dynamic and can change over time due to various factors, including government policies, economic conditions, healthcare services, education, and cultural shifts. Demographic transition theory suggests that birth rates tend to decline as societies develop economically and undergo social changes. Table 2 : Crude Birth rate ( per 1000 Population) Death Rate The death rate refers to the number of deaths per 1,000 individuals in a population over a specific period. It is an important indicator of population health, healthcare systems, and overall well- being. Similar to birth rates, death rates vary significantly across countries and regions due to factors such as healthcare access, disease prevalence, and socio-economic conditions. As of the most recent data, the global average death rate is approximately 7.7 deaths per 1,000 people per year (World Bank, 2021). However, just like birth rates, death rates also exhibit significant variation across countries and regions. High-income countries generally have lower death rates due to better healthcare infrastructure, advanced medical technologies, and improved living standards. In contrast, low and middle-income countries often face higher death rates due to limited access to quality healthcare, higher prevalence of infectious diseases, inadequate nutrition, and other socio-economic challenges. It is important to consider that death rates can be influenced by various factors, including advancements in medical science, disease outbreaks, access to healthcare services, lifestyle choices, and environmental factors. Changes in death rates also impact population dynamics and can lead to shifts in age distributions, population aging, and policy considerations. Understanding the current birth and death rates provides insights into the demographic landscape and helps policymakers, researchers, and organizations plan and develop strategies related to healthcare, social welfare, education, and resource allocation.Table 3: Crude Death rate ( per 1000 Population) Source: UN Population Division Global Fertility Rate Fertility rate measures the average number of children per woman. the most recent global fertility rate average is approximately 2.4 births per woman (World Bank, 2021). The OECD opined that the total fertility rate in a specific year is defined as the total number of children that would be born to each woman if she were to live to the end of her child-bearing years and give birth to children in alignment with the prevailing age-specific fertility rates. It is calculated by totaling the age-specific fertility rates as defined over five-year intervals. Assuming no net migration and unchanged mortality, a total fertility rate of 2.1 children per woman ensures a broadly stable population. Together with mortality and migration, fertility is an element of population growth, reflecting both the causes and effects of economic and social developments. This number is projected to fall to about 2 by 2050. This decrease is attributable largely to changes in fertility in the developing world. In 1950, the total fertility rate among developed countries was already below 3 children per woman; the rate among developing countries was over 6. Fertility in the latter is now below 3 children per woman. The fertility decline in low-income countries can be ascribed to a number of factors, including declines in infant mortality rates, greater levels of education and increased labor market opportunities among women, and the provision of family planning services (Kelley1988). Table 4 shows the Global Fertility rate decline Source: UN Population Division Infant and Child mortality decline  The developing world has seen significant reductions in infant and child mortality over the past 50 years. The infant mortality rate for World in 2022 was 26.693 deaths per 1000 live births, a 2.35% decline from 2021. The infant mortality rate for World in 2021 was 27.334 deaths per 1000 live births, a 2.29% decline from 2020. It is projected to decline further to fewer than 30 deaths per 1 000 live births by 2050. The past half-century’s gains resulted primarily from improved nutrition, public health interventions related to water and sanitation, and medical advances such as the use of vaccines and antibiotics. Infant mortality rates in the developed world have been, and will continue to be, significantly lower those than in the developing world. Developed countries have seen infant mortality decline from 59 to 7 deaths per 1 000 live births since 1950, and this is projected to decline further still, to 4 by 2050. Child mortality (death prior to age 5) has also fallen, in both developed and developing countries. Table 5: Infant Mortality Rates per 1000 births Source: UN Population Division Global Life expectancy The Global life expectancy or the average expected living age of individuals has steadily increased. For the world as a whole, life expectancy increased from 47 years in 1950–1955 to 65 years in 2000–2005. The current life expectancy for World in 2023 is 73.16 years, a 0.24% increase from 2022. The life expectancy for World in 2022 was 72.98 years, a 0.24% increase from 2021. The life expectancy for World in 2021 was 72.81 years, a 0.24% increase from 2020. In most Asian societies like in the case of the Philippines, there exists a high regard for the elderly as they are mostly accrued an esteemed position in the family. The average life expectancy of Filipinos is 71, which is two years the global average of 73, according to a study by the World Bank for 2020.The same study also showed that the average life expectancy of Filipino males is 67 and females 76. The proportion of individuals aged 80 or over is projected to rise from 1 per cent to 4 per cent of the global population by 2050. Population ageing is occurring in both developed and developing countries, although more rapidly in the former. In the developed world, the proportion of people aged 60 or over will increase from 20 to 32 per cent by 2050. In the developing world, it will rise from 8 to 20 per cent. There are gender differences in life expectancy (Bloom and Canning, n.d). Working Age Population We have discussed earlier what a baby boom is. It is however important to note how these baby booms have altered the demographic landscape in many countries. Many instances shows that an initial fall in mortality rates creates a boom generation because high survival rates lead to more people at young ages than in earlier generations. Fertility rates fall subsequently, as parents realize they do not need to produce as many children to reach their desired family size, or as desired family size diminishes for other reasons. When fertility falls and the baby boom stops, the age structure of the population then shows a ‘bulge’ – the baby-boom-age cohort – created by the non-synchronous falls in mortality and fertility. As this cohort works its way through the age structure of the population, it represents a share of the population larger than the share represented by the cohorts that precede or follow it. This movement affects the ebb and flow of productive age and the working population in general. The baby boom creates particular challenges and opportunities for countries. In its youth, it is a large cohort to be educated. Jimenez and Murthi (2006), in addressing the challenges of a large youth cohort (ages 12–24), stress the importance for long-term economic growth of investing in education and health of the young and the need to ease entry into the labor market for this group. The working age population is defined as those aged 15 to 64. The basic indicator for employment is the proportion of the working age population aged 15-64 who are employed. The age dependency ratio is the ratio of dependents (people younger than 15 or older than 64) to the working-age population (OECD, n.d). Demographic Change and Its Economic Impact Demographic change is consequential with respect to economic and social development. The economic consequences of population growth, in particular, have long been the subject of debate. It was first believed that population growth would lead to the exhaustion of resources. In 1798, Thomas Malthus, perhaps the first of the ‘population pessimists’, argued that the world’s resources would be unable to keep pace with population growth. Food production would expand more slowly than population, and many would lose out in the competition for food. Thomas Malthus argued that world population will outpace resources leading to food scarcity Then, in the 1960s, it was proposed that population growth aided economic development by spurring technological and institutional innovation and increasing the supply of human ingenuity. Simon Kuznets (1967), Julian Simon (1981) and Ester Boserup (1981) were the leaders among the ‘population optimists’. Kuznets argued that larger societies can take advantage of economies of scale and are better-equipped for trade. Simon showed that the prices of natural resources decline as growing populations, complete with a greater stock of human ingenuity, make the technological improvements necessary to respond to increasing demand. Boserup (1981), presented compelling historical evidence of the pressure that population growth puts on societies to create new solutions in the face of resource constraints. These “optimist thinkers” all argue that population increase can lead to better opportunities for economic growth and mobility. The Green Revolution, for example, where new, high-yield crops dramatically increased food production in much of the developing world, occurred in part as a response to population growth. Although the optimists did not believe population growth would automatically lead to economic advances, they saw that favorable policies could help translate increases in population into greater wealth. In effect, Population neutralism became the predominant school of thought in the 1980s and 1990s. Advocates of this position (Bloom and Freeman 1986; Kelley 1988) took the optimists’ observation that the consequences of population growth depended largely on the policy environment a step further. Population neutralism was based on empirical research showing little correlation between the growth rate of income per capita and the rate of population growth. In other words, population growth by itself has no effect on economic performance. Other factors such as openness to trade, educational attainment and the quality of institutions determine whether economic progress can keep pace with population expansion. Although fast- growing populations tend to experience slower economic growth, when these other factors are taken into account, the negative impact of population expansion disappears. Recently, population neutralism is giving way to a more fine-grained view of the effects of population dynamics in which demographic change does affect economic development. In the Philippines, the advocates of the controversial Reproductive Health Law argues that if the population of the country could be checked using policy measures such as the RH law, then progress and development can be easier attained. Supporters of the RH Law in the Philippines (photo courtesy of manilatimes.net) The Impact of Demographical Changes to Globalization It goes without saying that Demographic changes affect the phenomenon of Globalization to a large extent. For instance, the changes in population distribution and population growth might impact economic and political policies of nation states. In fact , according to a World Bank report in 2013, ageing, migration, educational convergence and women’s growing participation in the labor force — all linked to the underlying demographic transition — help to shape countries’ comparative advantage. For instance, if a country slows down on its population growth, there could be more capital that can be infused on socio developmental aspects like improving education. An improved education level can boost the competitiveness of people in the global job market. In addition, as the size of the working-age population increases in some countries and decreases in others — and as a global middle class emerges — the size and the composition of import demand is also changing, with further effects on trade flows. For instance, trade in services, such as healthcare and education, is likely to increase. Demography has shaped trading patterns since antiquity. The early demographic transition in Europe was bound up with its position at the centre of the global trading system, as a source of both manufactured goods and migrants. The rise of Asia’s population prefigured its role at the heart of the global economy (Harding , nd). Global Demography and the COVID 19 Pandemic The COVID-19 pandemic has had significant and wide-ranging impacts on global demography. Let's delve into a detailed and comprehensive discussion of these effects: Disruption of Birth Rates The pandemic has led to disruptions in birth rates globally. Several factors contribute to this decline. Economic uncertainties, job losses, and financial constraints have influenced individuals and couples to postpone or reconsider having children (Mood, 2020). Restricted access to healthcare services and concerns about the health risks associated with pregnancy and childbirth have also played a role (Dettori et al., 2021). Additionally, lockdown measures and social distancing guidelines have affected interpersonal relationships and reduced opportunities for new partnerships or pregnancies (Kridli et al., 2021). Increased Mortality COVID-19 has caused a significant increase in mortality rates worldwide. The virus has had a disproportionate impact on older adults and individuals with underlying health conditions (Ahmad et al., 2020). The increased mortality rates have contributed to changes in age structures and population dynamics. Regions with high COVID-19 mortality rates may experience a temporary decline in overall population growth (United Nations, 2020). Globally, 2023, there have been 767,750,853 confirmed cases of COVID-19, including 6,941,095 deaths, reported to WHO. Population Aging The pandemic has further accelerated population aging trends in many countries. The higher mortality rates among older adults have contributed to an increase in the proportion of older individuals within the population (Muttarak et al., 2021). This demographic shift has implications for healthcare systems, pension schemes, labor markets, and intergenerational relationships. Governments and societies will face challenges in providing adequate healthcare and support for an aging population while ensuring sustainable economic growth (Lutz et al., 2020). Migration Patterns COVID-19 has disrupted global migration patterns, affecting demographic dynamics. Travel restrictions, border closures, and economic uncertainties have limited the movement of people across countries and regions (IOM, 2021). Migrants faced challenges in seeking employment opportunities, reuniting with families, or accessing essential services. These disruptions have implications for population composition and growth, as migration plays a significant role in shaping demographic patterns in many countries (Castaneda et al., 2021). Health Inequalities The pandemic has exposed and exacerbated existing health inequalities across populations. Socio-economic factors, access to healthcare, and pre-existing health conditions influence the impact of the virus on different demographic groups (Marmot et al., 2020). Marginalized communities, disadvantaged populations, and individuals in low-income countries are often disproportionately affected. Structural inequalities have resulted in higher infection rates, poorer health outcomes, and limited access to healthcare services (Yaya et al., 2020). Addressing these health inequalities is crucial to ensure a fair and equitable response to the pandemic and its demographic consequences. The full extent of the impact of COVID-19 on global demography is still unfolding, and ongoing research is vital to monitor and understand these effects comprehensively. Policymakers, researchers, and international organizations continue to study and analyze the demographic consequences to inform public health strategies, healthcare planning, and social policies. Looking into the Future What can we expect in the next half-century? Based on the indicators that are available, Roser (2018) made a few points. All signs suggest that there will be continued but slowing population growth. This continued growth will result in the addition of roughly 3 billion people to the world population, before it stabilizes around 2050 at about 9 billion. Managing this increase will be an enormous challenge, and the economic consequences of failing to do so could be severe. The world’s population is ageing, and the growth in the sheer number of elderly people will be huge. The United Nations predicts that 31per cent of China’s population in 2050 – 432 million people – will be aged 60 or over. The corresponding figures for India are 21 per cent and 330 million. No longer can ageing be thought of as a developed-world phenomenon. International migration will continue, but the extent is unclear. The pressures that encourage people to migrate – above all the lure of greater economic well-being in the developed countries  – will undoubtedly persist, but the strength of countervailing policy restrictions that could substantially staunch the flow of migrants is impossible to predict. Urbanization will continue, but here, too, the pace is impossible to predict. Greater economic opportunities in the cities will surely continue to attract migrants from rural areas, but environmental and social problems may stymie growth. Although demographic changes are, for the most part, easier to predict than economic changes, the big-picture outlook is nonetheless unclear. The uncertainties are similar to those we cited regarding possible changes in the human life span. Will an outbreak of avian flu or another disease become pandemic, killing many millions and decimating economies? What happens if these diseases are, or become, resistant to existing drugs? Conversely, scientific advances in areas such as genomics, contraceptive methods, or vaccines for diseases such as AIDS or malaria could save and improve millions of lives. Global warming and other environmental changes, or large-scale war, could completely alter the context of demographic and economic predictions. Millions of refugees, from any cause, could lead demographic predictions to be far off the mark, and could, of course, lead to upheavals that would dwarf the importance of the analysis offered here. We live in an uncertain world after all. Just a Quick Recap! ✓ Demography represents the study of statistics such as births, deaths, income, or the incidence of disease, which illustrate the changing structure of human populations and thus poses an effect on globalization on a holistic level. ✓ On a worldwide basis, the difference between the crude birth rate and the crude death rate is the rate of population growth.  ✓ World Health Organization reported that 72.0 years was the average life expectancy at birth of the global population. As a result of the global decline in fertility, and because people are living longer, the median age is rising. ✓ Demographic changes impact on the economy in general and Globalization in particular. Global Migration: Understanding the Challenges and Opportunities of Human Mobility “Migrants and refugees are not pawns in the chessboard of humanity” - Pope Francis At the end of this chapter, the student is expected to: 1. Gain a fuller understanding of the dynamics of global migration. 2. Understand the various reasons for Global migration. 3. Have a better appraisal of the issues and concerns related to migration 4. Be able to correlate Global migration with Globalization. 5. Equip students with 21st century learning and develop higher order thinking skills that will lead towards a deeper understanding of Global Migration and how it can impact oneself and the Philippines.  The previous chapter analyzed global demography. It is believed that one of the essential aspects of demographic analysis is migration. However, due to the complexity and importance of this subject matter in relation to Globalization most especially, we shall be discussing it here in a separate chapter. Humanity seems to be always on the move. Throughout history, we have seen how civilizations and empires rose out of constant human mobility. We have witnessed how patterns of social transformation as well as institutions were shaped because of the desire to explore and the zeal to discover. The nomadic spirit of man is very much evident in the fact that pluralistic and multi ethnic societies exists in our midst which could be regarded as by products and fruits of many years of migratory processes. The most recent era of mass voluntary migration was between 1850 and 1914 wherein over one million people a year were drawn to the new world by the turn of the 20th century (Andreas, 2000). Now, more than ever, it is important to understand the core dynamics of global migration. The patterns, concerns, issues and prospects for the future are indeed important elements to be considered leading to a more solid appraisal of how Global migration and the phenomenon we call Globalization are intertwined. To begin, it is worthy to highlight that based on the 2017 International Migration Report by the United Nations, the number of international migrants continue to escalate at a rapid pace. The current global estimate is that there were around 281 million international migrants in the world in 2020, which equates to 3.6 per cent of the global population.. This staggering increase can be attributed to technology, the ease of transport and mobility thus making it cheaper and faster for people to move in search of jobs, opportunity, education and quality of life. At the same time conflict, poverty, inequality and a lack of sustainable livelihoods compel people to leave their homes to seek a better future for themselves and their families abroad (Daniels, 2002). Essentially, these comprise the major trigger factors for migration to persist. We shall however, discuss it more in detail later. First, it is imperative to clarify some basic concepts related to migration. By definition, an international migrant is a person who is living in a country other than his or her country of birth. One cause of confusion is the difference between immigration and emigration. In fact, some people use these terms interchangeably. The difference between “immigrate” and “emigrate” is that “immigrating” is the act of entering a foreign country to live while “emigrating” is the act of leaving a country to live in another. Then, there is the difference between the home country which is the country of origin of an emigrant and the host country which is the country of destination of an immigrant (Carrera et.al, 2009). Both activities of immigrating and emigrating can bring a host of positive effects for both the host and home countries. In fact, the UN International Migration Report in 2017 noted that migrants from developing countries sent home an estimated US $413 billion in remittances. The Philippines is one country that enjoys a relatively large sum of remittances especially from its Overseas Filipino Workers. In fact, in 2017, OFW remittances hit $28.1 billion. These remittances are important especially for the home countries as these constitute a significant source of household income that improves the livelihoods of families and communities through investments in education, health, sanitation, housing and infrastructure (Lorenzo et,al, 2007). On the other hand, countries of destination or host communities benefit significantly from migration as migrants often fill critical labor gaps, create jobs as entrepreneurs, and pay taxes and social security contributions. However Leiken (2001) opined that some migrants are among the most dynamic members of the host society contributing to the development of science and technology and enriching their host communities by providing cultural diversity In the Philippines, again, this is very noticeable as many expat migrants have put up foreign investments that does not only create jobs but also contributed to the social and cultural aspects of the country. For example, the $2.4-billion integrated resort Okada Manila established by Japanese businessman Kazuo Okada is an architectural beauty and also a contributor to local employment. Refugees might be the face of migration in the media, but 90 percent of the world’s 258 million migrants have moved across borders voluntarily, usually for economic reasons. Voluntary migration flows are typically gradual, placing less stress on logistics and on the social fabric of destination countries than refugee flows. Most voluntary migrants are working-age adults, a characteristic that helps raise the share of the population that is economically active in destination countries (McElroy, 2011). Despite the significant benefits of migration, some migrants remain among the most vulnerable members of society. What could be some reasons for this assertion? Well, to begin, migrants are often the first to lose their jobs in the event of an economic downturn. Some work for less pay, for longer hours, and in worse conditions than native-born workers. While migration is often an empowering experience, some migrants endure human rights violations, abuse and discrimination. Migrants, particularly women and children, may fall victim to human trafficking and the heinous forms of exploitation that it entails ( UNODC, nd). The Philippines , is in fact, no stranger to this as we have seen, heard and endured countless stories of maltreatment and abuse especially among women OFW’s who are either raped, inhumanely treated or worst met their untimely death in a foreign land. The succeeding discussion shall focus on the primary reasons for migration. Reasons for Global Migration Some people choose to migrate, eg someone who moves to another country to enhance their career opportunities. Some people are forced to migrate, eg someone who moves due to war or famine. In this section, we shall try to analyze the reasons as well as the factors that compel people to migrate. We shall attempt to discuss these factors one by one and categorize these reasons as well. They are as follows: 1. Political - (Civil Strife, Wars and the need for Asylum ) The deplorable state of displacement brought about by civil conflict and insecurity places asylum seekers at the topmost of our list. As stated, 90 percent of migration is borne out of economic reasons. By contrast, the remaining 10 percent are refugees and asylum seekers who have fled to another country to escape conflict and persecution. A refugee is someone who has left their home and does not have a new home to go to. Often refugees do not carry many possessions with them and do not have a clear idea of where they may finally settle (Wilson, 2007). Roughly half of the world’s 24 million refugees are in the Middle East and North Africa, reflecting the dominant pattern of flight to a neighboring country. Globally, 20 people are newly displaced every minute. Overall, more than 65 million people around the world have been forcibly displaced. That’s the most since World War II, according to the U.N. Refugee Agency (UNHCR). Here are the five countries of origin that account for the most refugees in the world today. 1. Syrian Arab Republic Syria has been experiencing a protracted civil war since 2011, leading to a large-scale displacement crisis. As a result, Syria has consistently had one of the highest numbers of refugees globally. According to the UN Refugee Agency (UNHCR), as of 2021, there were approximately 6.7 million Syrian refugees displaced both within Syria and in neighboring countries such as Turkey, Lebanon, Jordan, Iraq, and Egypt. File Photo: Displaced men, women and children forced out of Syria ( photo courtesy of catholicherald.com) The Syrian Civil War, which began in the spring of 2011, provides an extreme example of the relationship between internal violence and the emigration of refugees. The war has included horrific violence between government forces and rebel groups attempting to overthrow the Assad regime, resulting in more than 80,000 deaths as well as extensive human rights atrocities (Abedine et al, 2013). As a result of the deteriorating conditions in Syria, which include the alleged use of chemical weapons, torture, civilian massacres and so on, Syrian citizens have fled in mass numbers. As of May 2013, more than four million Syrians were internally displaced and over 1.5 million had vacated the country to neighboring states as refugees. These numbers have drastically increased as circumstances have become more dire; one million of the total refugee population has fled during the first five months of 2013 alone,  and the UNHCR suggests that these estimates may be significantly undercounted (Abedine et al, 2013). 2. Venezuela Due to a severe economic and political crisis, Venezuela has seen a significant outflow of refugees and migrants in recent years. The UNHCR estimates that over 5.6 million Venezuelans have left their country seeking safety and better opportunities. The majority of Venezuelan refugees have sought refuge in neighboring countries, including Colombia, Peru, Ecuador, Brazil, and Chile. 3. Afghanistan Afghanistan has long been grappling with conflicts and instability. Ongoing violence, political instability, and economic challenges have forced millions of Afghans to flee their homes. As of 2021, there were approximately 3.5 million Afghan refugees worldwide, with large numbers residing in Pakistan and Iran. 4. South Sudan Since gaining independence in 2011, South Sudan has experienced internal conflicts and political instability. The ongoing violence and humanitarian crisis have resulted in a significant number of refugees fleeing the country. According to the UNHCR, there were about 2.2 million South Sudanese refugees in neighboring countries like Uganda, Sudan, Ethiopia, and Kenya. 5. Myanmar (Burma) Myanmar has faced ethnic conflicts and persecution, particularly against the Rohingya Muslim minority. The Rohingya crisis has led to a large-scale exodus of refugees from Myanmar to neighboring Bangladesh, with over a million Rohingya refugees currently residing in refugee camps in Cox's Bazar in Bangladesh.  File Photo: Rohingya Refugees from Myanmar (courtesy of bdnews) It is important to note that the global refugee situation is fluid, and numbers can change over time due to various factors such as conflicts, political changes, and international responses. Other countries with significant refugee populations include Iraq, Somalia, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, and Eritrea, among others. 2. Economic – In Search for Better Opportunities The second most prevalent reason is economic. An economic migrant is someone who emigrates from one region to another to seek an improvement in living standards because the living conditions or job opportunities in the migrant's own region are not sufficient. People who work legally in another country are often described as immigrants or expatriates. Economic factors provide the main motivation behind migration. In fact, according to the International Labor Organization, approximately half of the total population of current international migrants, or about 100 million migrant workers, have left home to find better job and lifestyle opportunities for their families abroad (International Labor Office of the Director-General, 2008). In some countries, jobs simply do not exist for a great deal of the population. In other instances, the income gap between sending and receiving countries is great enough to warrant a move. India, for example, has recently experienced a surge in emigration due to a combination of these factors (Index Mundi 2012). Economic effects of Migration The economic effects of migration vary widely. Sending countries may experience both gains and losses in the short term but may stand to gain over the longer term. For receiving countries temporary worker programs help to address skills shortages but may decrease domestic wages and add to public welfare burden. The economic effects of migration for both sending and receiving countries may also vary depending on who is moving, specifically with respect to migrant workers’ skill levels. A Swedish Professor notes, “the problem is not immigration; it is integration, especially in the labor market. If there are no jobs, the consequences are segregation, housing problems and divided cities” (Traynor, 2010). For sending countries, the short-term economic benefit of emigration is found in remittances. Remittances are funds that emigrants earn abroad and send back to their home countries, mainly in order to support families left behind. According to the World Bank, remittances totaled $529 billion worldwide in 2012, with $401 billion of that money flowing into developing nations (2013). Significantly, these figures only account for funds sent through formal channels, so the amount of remittances is likely much larger than these numbers suggest. The World Bank notes that remittances sent through informal channels could add at least 50 percent to the globally recorded flows (UNCTAD, 2011). At the same time, developing countries can suffer from “brain drain”—the loss of trained and educated individuals to emigration. For example, there are currently more African scientists and engineers working in the U.S. than there are in all of Africa, according to the International Organization for Migration (IOM). Trends in Global Migration Global migration is a complex and multifaceted phenomenon that has significant social, economic, and political implications. Here is a comprehensive discussion on the trends of global migration: Increasing Migration Flows Over the past few decades, there has been a notable increase in global migration flows. Factors driving migration include economic disparities, conflicts, political instability, environmental changes, and search for better opportunities. Improved transportation, communication, and globalization have made migration more accessible, resulting in larger numbers of people moving across borders. Regional Migration Patterns Migration patterns vary across different regions of the world. For example: South-South Migration: Increasingly, migration is taking place between countries in the Global South, driven by economic factors and regional integration efforts. This type of migration contributes to the development of migrant-receiving countries and the circulation of remittances. South-North Migration: Many individuals from developing countries migrate to more developed countries in search of economic opportunities, education, or asylum. These migration flows often generate debates on labor market dynamics, social integration, and migration policies. North-North Migration: Migration also occurs between developed countries, driven by factors such as employment opportunities, family reunification, and international education. This type of migration raises issues related to cultural diversity, social integration, and citizenship. Forced Displacement and Refugees There has been a significant increase in forced displacement globally. Ongoing conflicts, persecution, and human rights violations have forced millions of people to flee their homes and seek refuge elsewhere. The number of refugees and internally displaced persons (IDPs) has reached unprecedented levels, resulting in significant humanitarian challenges. It is essential to address the root causes of forced displacement and provide adequate protection and support to those affected. Urbanization and Migration Migration is closely linked to urbanization. Many migrants are drawn to urban areas in search of better employment opportunities, access to services, and a higher standard of living. This influx of migrants poses both opportunities and challenges for cities. On one hand, migrants contribute to economic growth, cultural diversity, and innovation. On the other hand, rapid urbanization can strain infrastructure, housing, and social services, leading to social inequalities and urban poverty. Integration and Social Cohesion The successful integration of migrants is crucial for social cohesion and the well-being of both migrants and host communities. Integration involves facilitating migrants' access to education, employment, healthcare, and social services, as well as promoting cultural understanding and social interaction. Policies and programs that support integration and address discrimination and xenophobia are essential for fostering inclusive and cohesive societies. Migration Governance and Policies Migration governance and policies play a vital role in managing migration effectively and maximizing its benefits while addressing challenges. Comprehensive migration policies should consider factors such as labor market needs, family reunification, humanitarian protection, integration, and border management. International cooperation is crucial in addressing migration- related issues, ensuring human rights, and facilitating safe and orderly migration. Climate Change and Migration Climate change is increasingly recognized as a driver of migration. Environmental factors such as rising sea levels, droughts, and extreme weather events can displace communities and lead to climate-induced migration. This type of migration presents unique challenges and requires innovative policy approaches to ensure the protection and assistance of climate migrants. Understanding global migration trends is essential for informed policymaking, promoting social cohesion, and addressing the needs of both migrants and host communities. It requires a holistic approach that considers the diverse drivers and impacts of migration and prioritizes human rights, equality, and sustainable development. 3. Environmental – Disaster driven migration Environmental problems and natural disasters often cause the loss of money, homes, and jobs. In the middle of the 19th century, for example, Ireland experienced a famine never before seen in the country’s history. By late fall 1845, the main staple of the Irish diet, the potato, was practically wiped out. With the government not clear on how to respond, many people died of starvation. The famine killed hundreds of thousands and forced millions of Irish to flee. Between 1841 and 1851, the Irish population decreased by 1.6 million people, or approximately 17% of the total population, due to starvation and emigration (Daniels 2002). These emigrants were also encouraged to leave Ireland by their English landlords, who often rented out unseaworthy vessels that became known as “coffin ships,” and by the British government, which offered cheap fares to Canada. The large population of Americans and Canadians of Irish descent, especially in Boston, New York, and Chicago, can trace its ancestry to this period (Daniels 2002). More recently, the term “environmental refugee” has been adopted to describe migrants fleeing environmental disasters. In recent years, the concept of “environmental refugees” has gained new importance, as global climate change and desertification have threatened the livelihoods of millions of people, causing many to leave home in search of new opportunities. “Environmental refugee”, a term coined by Essam El-Hinnawi, describes “people who have been forced to leave their traditional habitat, temporarily or permanently, because of a marked environmental disruption (natural and/or triggered by people) that jeopardizes their existence and/or seriously effects the quality of their life” (LISER.eu). In 2012, approximately 32.4 million people were displaced by environmental disasters, including those who were forced to relocate within their countries of origin and those who sought refuge through international migration. Ninety-eight percent of this displacement was caused by climate- and weather-related disasters, especially flooding. While developing nations tend to be disproportionately affected by such displacement, often due to “compounded vulnerability” of repeated natural disasters and difficulty rebuilding infrastructure and protections for the future, wealthy countries also suffered considerable environmental-induced displacement during 2012 (IDMC, 2012). Desertification currently affects between 100 and 200 million people worldwide. In northern Africa, the region arguably most affected by this environmental trend, desertification threatens an additional 50 million inhabitants of land at risk of becoming uninhabitable due to climate change and poor farming techniques. This trend has led to a wave of North African migrants fleeing to Western Europe in order to escape crop failure and water shortage. Although many environmental refugees would like to make it to Western Europe, the vast majority end up migrating to neighboring countries, which tend to be some of the poorest in the world. In many of these places, refugees are seen as unwelcome guests, putting further strain on already scarce water and land supplies. This social mistrust and competition may escalate to further conflict and violence (Re-thinking Policies to Cope with Desertification, 2006). According to Oxford-based environmental migration expert Norman Myers, when global climate change takes hold, “there could be as many as 200 million people overtaken by disruptions of monsoon systems and other rainfall regimes, by droughts of unprecedented severity and duration, and by sea-level rise and coastal flooding”. Exposure to the negative effects of global climate change will, in many cases, lead to massive waves of migration (Nordland, 2008). Environmental refugees are a particularly difficult problem for governments and policy- makers to cope with due to the variety of environmental disasters that can have dramatic impacts on the forced migration of people. For example in Bangladesh, rising sea-levels and resulting floods have caused many people to flee across the border to India. On the other hand, in the Sudan, droughts have reduced sources of water for consumption and traditional agriculture, leaving many people without sufficient access to food or water and increasing conflict over these resources. Governments must be able to foresee and respond to these environmental issues, requiring time, money and organization. Additionally, as noted above, many of the states most gravely affected by environmental disasters and resulting migration are in the developing world, meaning they may lack resources to adequately address the detrimental effects of these crises ( The Economist, 2008). Somali refugees fleeing flooding in Dadaab, Kenya ( Photo courtesy of UNHCR) Push – Pull factors of Migration Sociologists have long analyzed migration in terms of the “push-pull” model. This model differentiates between push factors that drive people to leave home, from pull factors that attract migrants to a new location. Push factors occur within sending states, that is, those that send migrants abroad, while pull factors occur within receiving states, that is, states that receive immigrants from sending states abroad (Jonjic and Mavrodi 2012). Push factors are negative aspects of the sending country, while pull factors are positive aspects of the receiving country. In fact, these differentiating factors are really two sides of the same coin. In moving migrants must not only find a lack of benefits at home (push factors) but also expect a surplus of benefits abroad (pull factors); otherwise the move would not be worthwhile. Whereas push factors drive migrants out of their countries of origin, pull factors are responsible for dictating where these travelers end up. The positive aspects of some countries serve to attract more immigrants than others (Hanson, 2012).  There are also more ambiguous factors, called network factors that can either facilitate or deter migration. As mentioned above, network factors include cost of travel, the ease of communication, and international business trends. These factors are not related to a specific country, but still have a profound effect on international migration Examples are thus given below Push factors are the reasons why people leave an area. They include: Lack of economic opportunities Lack of safety High Criminality Crop failure Drought Flooding Poverty War Pull factors are the reasons why people move to a particular area. They include: Higher employment More wealth Better services Good climate Safer, less criminality Political stability More fertile land Lower risk from natural hazards Migration usually happens as a result of a combination of these push and pull factors. Migration and Globalization At this point, it is of great importance that we turn our attention to how migration and globalization affects one another. We cannot over emphasize further the intrinsic relation between Migration and Globalization. Both have affected each other in a variety of ways. The ease of travel, technologically driven means of transportation and communication has definitely became an impetus to migrate especially with push and pull factors seemingly overwhelming and hard to resist. On the other hand, the intermixing and conglomeration of people of various races and nationalities has pushed the bounds of the nation state towards becoming more dynamic imbued with a truly global appeal. Technological Advancements and Communication Technological advancements, particularly in transportation and communication, have facilitated migration. Improved transportation infrastructure and reduced costs have made it easier for people to travel across borders (IOM, 2019). Simultaneously, advancements in communication technologies, such as the internet and social media, have facilitated information sharing, allowing individuals to gather knowledge about potential destinations, job opportunities, and migration processes (Düvell, 2020). Technology has also facilitated transnational networks and connections, enabling migrants to maintain ties with their home countries and seek support from diaspora communities (Levitt & Jaworsky, 2018). Cultural Exchange and Transnationalism Globalization has fostered cultural exchange and transnationalism, influencing migration patterns. Cultural globalization, through the spread of media, entertainment, and information, has created aspirations and desires for a different lifestyle and cultural experiences (Appadurai, 2018). This cultural influence can be a motivating factor for migration, as individuals seek to explore new cultures and identities. Additionally, transnationalism, characterized by the maintenance of social, economic, and cultural connections across borders, has been facilitated by globalization (Glick Schiller et al., 2018). Migrants often maintain strong ties with their home countries, engaging in remittance sending, supporting development projects, and contributing to cultural diversity in both origin and destination countries (Levitt, 2019). Political Factors and Global Governance Globalization has influenced migration governance and policies. International frameworks and agreements, such as the United Nations Global Compact for Safe, Orderly, and Regular Migration, aim to address the challenges and opportunities of migration in a globalized world (UN, 2018). Cooperation among countries in managing migration has become crucial, recognizing that migration is a shared responsibility (Betts & Collier, 2017). Global governance mechanisms provide platforms for dialogue, coordination, and the exchange of best practices to address issues related to migration, including human rights, labor rights, and protection of vulnerable migrants (Brettell & Hollifield, 2020). Diaspora Engagement and Remittances Globalization has facilitated diaspora engagement and the flow of remittances. Diaspora communities, formed by migrants and their descendants, contribute to economic, social, and cultural development in both origin and destination countries (Levitt & Lamba-Nieves, 2018). They often maintain strong ties with their home countries, investing in businesses, supporting development projects, and transferring knowledge and skills. Remittances, the financial transf