RCE2601 Study Guide (University of South Africa) PDF

lOMoARcPSD|13574702 RCE2601 Study Guide Research and Critical Reason (University of South Africa) Scan to open on Studocu Studocu is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university Downloaded by Andy kiss ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|13574702 Downloaded by Andy kiss ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|13574702 © 2019 University of South Africa All rights reserved Printed and published by the University of South Africa Muckleneuk, Pretoria RCE2601/1/2020–2022 70730008 InDesign HSY_Style Downloaded by Andy kiss ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|13574702 CONTENTS Page Foreword v Learning unit 1: RESEARCH PROBLEMS 1 1.1 Learning outcome and assessment criterion 1 1.2 Role and scope of Educational Research 1 1.3 From research idea to research problem 3 1.3.1 Idea ("Observation") 3 1.3.2 Identiﬁcation ("area") 4 1.3.3 Demarcation ("focus") 4 1.3.4 Research problem and research question 5 1.4 Identifying and evaluating research problems 6 1.5 Phrasing a research problem 8 Learning unit 2: CRITICAL REASONING 10 2.1 Learning outcome and assessment criterion 10 2.2 Logic as the essence of academic writing 10 2.3 The elements of critical reasoning 11 2.4 Analysing arguments 14 2.5 Constructing a logical argument for a research problem 15 Learning unit 3: RESEARCH SKILLS 16 3.1 Learning outcome and assessment criterion 16 3.2 Research paradigms 16 3.3 Literature study 17 3.4 Research approaches in empirical research 19 3.5 Data collection and analysis 21 3.5.1 Participants 21 3.5.2 Data collection 22 3.5.2.1 Questionnaires 22 3.5.2.2 Interviews 23 3.5.2.3 Observation 24 3.5.3 Data analysis 25 3.6 Ethical considerations 26 Learning unit 4: ACTION RESEARCH 28 4.1 Learning outcome and assessment criterion 28 4.2 Key features of action research 28 4.2.1 Problem identiﬁcation 29 4.2.2 Planning 29 4.2.3 Implementation 29 4.2.4 Evaluation 30 4.3 Practical application of research skills in an action research proposal 30 4.3.1 Structure of action research proposal 31 4.3.2 Action research proposal 32 4.4 Identifying further action research needs 33 4.5 CLOSING REMARKS 33 RCE2601/1 (iii) Downloaded by Andy kiss ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|13574702 Downloaded by Andy kiss ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|13574702 1 FOREWORD 1.1 INTRODUCTION Welcome to this module on research and critical reasoning. We trust that you will ﬁnd this module enriching towards preparing you for a teaching career. Keep in mind that research is essentially the work of the inquisitive mind. The mindset of enquiry is essential to ensure that your teaching career is and remains exciting and dynamic. You probably ask yourself: Why should I complete a module on research as part of my teacher training? Right at the outset of this module, it is important to emphasise that teaching is not merely a "job", but a profession. The work in a profession (be it the medical, engineering, judicial or teaching) is guided by two essential features, namely, (a) an ethical code and (b) research. You are already aware of the former. As a teacher, you must register with the South African Council of Educators (SACE), and you are subjected to the ethical code for teachers. Our module concerns the latter, namely research in our profession. Your primary task as a teacher is naturally to educate and teach. Yet the professional person is continuously reﬂecting on and evaluating his/her work. In your classroom, you will encounter incidents and challenges, which will bring you to the question: What are the reasons for this? How can these be explained? What can I do about it? These questions are the cornerstone of so-called "action research" – that is research done by the professional practitioner with the explicit purpose to improve on his/ her quality of work. Action research is indeed the focus of this module, and in the ﬁnal part of it, you will be required to submit an action research proposal. This module thus aims to raise and maintain your awareness of the crucial role of research in your own educational practice and to equip you with some speciﬁc skills to do action research in a responsible and accountable way. Since academic research involves that, particular conventions are followed to ensure the quality of the research enterprise. We will pay due attention to scientiﬁcally accountable ways to do a literature study, collect research data, analyse such data, and report on the research ﬁndings. This ﬁrst groundwork in research will be particularly valuable for those of you who will in future, advance on the road to masters and doctoral studies in Education. 1.2 MODULE OUTCOMES AND ASSESSMENT CRITERIA A range of self- and formative assessments such as individual and collaborative activities, presented in course texts as well as multimedia, together with assignments and summative assessments, will ensure that you have achieved the following outcomes: Speciﬁc outcome 1: Deﬁne and formulate research problems and questions. RCE2601/1 (v) Downloaded by Andy kiss ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|13574702 FOREWORD Assessment criterion Read and summarise recent research in the ﬁeld of education on a topic associated with teaching in schools. "Recent" denotes material published within the last ﬁve years. Range Summaries must contain notes on the topic (research problem), research question and hypothesis (if used). Research problems are identiﬁed and described. Speciﬁc outcome 2: Identify and apply elements of critical reasoning and critical analysis to selected educational texts. Assessment criteria Elements of critical reasoning are used to analyse arguments by other scholars in the process of compiling a literature review, and own logical arguments are constructed by critical reasoning to motivate why a study based on the research problem identiﬁed in speciﬁc outcome 1 should be undertaken. Speciﬁc outcome 3: Develop basic research skills. Assessment criteria Research paradigms and designs are explored and discussed. Range Paradigms include, but are not limited to, positivist and interpretive paradigms. Epistemological underpinnings surrounding qualitative, quantitative and mixed- methods approaches are described and discussed. Approaches to analysing qualitative and quantitative data are described. Ethical considerations associated with research in education are explained. Speciﬁc outcome 4: Apply research skills in an action research proposal. Assessment criteria Reﬂection on an example of action research is done as a frame of reference for preparing an action research proposal. An action research proposal is prepared, based on a scenario. Further action research needs are considered. 1.3 PURPOSE STATEMENT The purpose of this module is to equip student teachers with basic research skills, to do a critical analysis of documents they might use in their research, and to develop critical reasoning skills that they can use to construct logical arguments when writing research reports. The skills acquired in this module can be applied in all other modules and in the teaching profession. (vi) Downloaded by Andy kiss ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|13574702 Foreword As student teachers are not only users of existing research when doing investigations, they must be prepared to become active research practitioners by compiling an action research proposal. 1.4 LEARNING ACTIVITIES The learning activities in this module are: Critical reading of prescribed texts Compiling summaries on reading tasks Interpreting and applying what you have read Creative work in devising your own research-related views and plans 1.5 ASSESSMENT Formative assessment The module is offered through distance education by using a mix of both print- based and online teaching and learning and assessment. Students will need to demonstrate their knowledge and skills, through the use of various assessment strategies. Lecturers may use the entire assessment strategy spectrum of multiple- choice questions, written essay assignments, collaborative assignment work, and participation in discussions, myUnisa tools, case studies and scenarios. The ﬁnal mark obtained through participation in formative assessment tasks contributes 20% to the year mark. Summative assessment Summative assessment is compulsory. The mode of assessment is the evaluation of an action research proposal. The ﬁnal mark obtained through summative assessment contributes 80% to the year mark. A subminimum summative assessment mark of 40% is required. 1.6 WAY FORWARD The following themes will be covered in this module: Research problems (learning unit 1) Critical analysis of resources (learning unit 2) Critical reasoning (learning unit 2) Logical argumentation (learning unit 2) Research skills (learning unit 3) Action research (learning unit 4) In this module, you will have to submit three assignments: Assignment 01: Research problem statement (10% of year mark). Due date: 30 April 2020 Assignment 02: Critical Reasoning (10% of year mark). Due date: 30 June 2020 Assignment 03: An action research proposal (80% of year mark). Due date: 29 September 2020 RCE2601/1 (vii) Downloaded by Andy kiss ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|13574702 FOREWORD To succeed and ensure that you ﬁnd this module an enjoyable and enriching experience, it is advised that you adhere to the following study guidelines: Keep yourself in the mindset of an investigator and researcher. In plain language, your inquisitive mind is of utmost importance for the success in this research module. Do all required reading thoroughly and with full mastery of the content. Reading is the key activity through which the researcher gets informed – never compromise on this. Good research depends very much on an uninterrupted ﬂow of thoughts and actions. Your time management must thus be such that you can give continuous attention to a speciﬁc activity and assignment. Do all the activities – each of them is included for a reason. Strictly follow the guidelines on doing your assignments, and edit your work meticulously prior to submission. (viii) Downloaded by Andy kiss ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|13574702 1 LEARNING UNIT 1 1 RESEARCH PROBLEMS In this learning unit, we attend to the following: The learning outcome and assessment criterion The role and scope of Educational Research The route from research idea to research problem Research problem and research question(s) Identifying and evaluating research problems Phrasing a research problem. 1.1 LEARNING OUTCOME AND ASSESSMENT CRITERION To deﬁne and formulate a research problem and research questions. Assessment criterion Read and summarise recent research in the ﬁeld of education on a topic associated with teaching in schools. "Recent" denotes material published in the last ﬁve years. Range: Summaries must contain notes on the topic (research problem), research question and hypothesis (if used). Research problems are identiﬁed and described. 1.2 ROLE AND SCOPE OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH Much can indeed be said about the role and scope of Educational Research (ER). Kamper's deﬁnition (2004) is just one attempt to provide some guidance on the nitty-gritty of ER. Educational research is a particular mode of social work, using accountable scientiﬁc endeavours for the continuous improvement of educational practice. Note the three key elements in this deﬁnition of ER: A particular mode of social work Uses accountable scientiﬁc endeavours Aims at the continuous improvement of educational practice It may come as a surprise to you that two of the elements (the ﬁrst and the third ones) do not mention research as such, but rather emphasise the role of ER in support, improvement and development. You must consider this critically; therefor, the following activity intends to clarify this. RCE2601/1 1 Downloaded by Andy kiss ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|13574702 ACTIVITY 1.1 Carefully read Unit 1 in the reader. Then write the following down (based on this document and/or your own views): (a) Five distinctive features of ER (b) Five distinctive challenges for ER in South Africa A clear idea of ER is valuable, but this is certainly not enough. We must also have a clear idea of the process and components of ER. All research, and thus ER, follows a generic process, which is a characteristic of any type of investigation. Just think about the typical process that a detective follows in trying to solve a murder case. He/she starts with the problem (e.g. a murder) and then proceeds to the ﬁrst essential step, which is to collect information. The detective considers carefully what information about the deceased he/she needs, and who can possibly provide (parts of) such information. Then he/she starts to collect the information through a lengthy process of interviewing and observations. The detective con- tinues with this process until clear patterns in the data become discernible. He/ she considers the validity ("truth value") of all data carefully, and this leads him/ her to certain conclusions on who the guilty one(s) could be. On these conclu- sions, concerted action follows to arrest and persecute the culprit(s). The follow- ing process clearly illustrates the typical stages in research. Graphically, we can illustrate these stages as follows: PROBLEM STATEMENT –LITERATURE – DATA COLLECTION – CONCLUSIONS – RECOMMENDATIONS ← REFLECTION → FIGURE 1 Stages in research Note that "reﬂection" underpins all the stages. Ongoing reﬂection is crucial in the research process. This means that the investigator asks him-/herself continuously during each stage of the research activity: "Am I on the right track?"; "What should I possibly do differently?" Or even: "Should I not start afresh with the investiga- tion, from another angle?" From this overview, we can now deduce the typical components and sequence of research. These components and sequence can be found in any research re- port (e.g. a scientiﬁc article; a master's dissertation, a doctoral thesis, an action research report): Introduction (the problem) Literature study (investigating the context of the problem) Empirical study (investigating and analysing the problem) Conclusions Recommendations From the discussion thus far, we can now see the two key generic features of good research: It is logical (it moves from cause to effect) It is cyclical (it moves from question to answer). We trust that you now have clarity on the essence of the research process. 2 Downloaded by Andy kiss ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|13574702 LEARNING UNIT 1: Research problems In the next section, we consider the most important ﬁrst stage of any good research, namely the route from research idea to research problem. In practical terms: How do you arrive at a good research question? 1.3 FROM RESEARCH IDEA TO RESEARCH PROBLEM The identiﬁcation and proper formulation of the research problem is crucial. If the research problem is too broad in scope, the research will become a managerial headache, and the research results will be shallow and irrelevant. On the other hand, if the research problem is very narrowly conceptualised, the research results will likewise be of very restricted value and application. A rule of thumb description of the research is the following: Research is the process from a good research question to an accountable answer on the basis of valid and reliable data. We will deal with the nitty-gritty of this description later on, but it is clear that research starts with a question, which is the essence of the so-called research problem. The key components of a research problem are thus: The introductory statement on the nature and relevance of the problem One or more research questions The identiﬁcation of a research problem may be a daunting task for a novice researcher. Where does one start, and how can one avoid pitfalls? Figure 2 will assist you in plotting the route from research idea to research problem. Idea ("observation") ↓ Identiﬁcation ("area") ↓ Demarcation ("focus") ↓ Problem ("question") FIGURE 2 From research idea to research problem 1.3.1 Idea ("Observation") The origin of any research project can be traced back to one or more observations by the researcher. Such observations are usually made in the researcher's workplace or community. In other words, research starts with the inquisitive stance of the researcher – being a keen observer, and continuously asking: "Why?" For example: A language teacher may notice (observe) that girls seem to be more interested in a particular prescribed poem than boys. Why would that be? Here we are at the very beginning of a possible research project. RCE2601/1 3 Downloaded by Andy kiss ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|13574702 1.3.2 Identiﬁcation ("area") The mentioned observation arose from the researcher's interest in a particular phenomenon. This is a crucial point to remember: Your interest. You cannot dream of doing research without being interested in what you are doing. Thus the ﬁrst consideration in identifying a research area is: What educational phenomenon am I interested in? This interest will almost invariably be linked to the subject you are (or will be) teaching. In every subject area of teaching, be it Mathematics, English, History or Natural Science, there are phenomena and challenges particular to that subject. The teacher as keen observer notes these with interest, and wonders about possible causes. We can now deduce from the points made above, that mere interest is not sufﬁcient as a stepping-stone towards the identiﬁcation of a research area. Knowledge and experience are two further essential requirements. Thus, your interest in a particular phenomenon and its possible causes will be underpinned by subject knowledge and practical teaching experience. Stated bluntly: The chances that a History teacher with no knowledge nor experience of the teaching of Mathematics will become interested in some problem in the teaching of Mathematics, are indeed very slim. To summarise: A researcher identiﬁes a research area through careful observation and keen personal interest in a phenomenon in the researcher's ﬁeld of subject knowledge and professional experience. Some examples of research areas are the following: Creativity in teaching Mathematics The use of higher-order thinking skills in the study of literature Sport and aggression 1.3.3 Demarcation ("focus") Once the research area has been identiﬁed, a major further activity must take place. Research projects are projects in the true sense of the word, meaning that strict boundaries must be set in terms of focus, scope and time. If such boundaries are not carefully set, the project will not be feasible – no project can go on forever and deal with everything. In our context of ER, we can easily demarcate research areas and establish a clear research focus according to organisational structures, like educational phases, subject areas or school types. Let us revisit the research area examples mentioned above, and then demarcate them for the purposes of research. Research area: Creativity in teaching Mathematics Demarcation: Stimulate creativity in teaching Mathematics in the foundation phase Research area: The use of higher-order thinking skills in the study of literature Demarcation: Grade 11 learner application of selected higher-order thinking skills in the study of prescribed English poems Research area: Sport and aggression Demarcation: A case study of a primary school learner's aggression in a team sport Note that demarcations essentially serve as research titles. 4 Downloaded by Andy kiss ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|13574702 LEARNING UNIT 1: Research problems Only after establishing a distinct focus through careful demarcation as illustrated above, can you formulate a research problem, as a prerequisite for planning and implementation of the research project. 1.3.4 Research problem and research question Metaphorically, the research problem can be described as the rails of your research train. Without it, your train will either not move or it will derail. All aspects of research planning and execution is dictated by the research problem. In a research proposal, and in the ﬁrst chapter of a research report, the research problem is normally introduced in a section headed "problem statement", and the problem itself is almost invariably stated in question format. The good news is that once demarcation has been carefully done and a research title has been phrased (see examples in the previous section), a research question is easily phrased. It simply involves the re-phrasing of the title (demarcation) in question format, beginning with typical interrogatives like "What?", "How?", "To what extent?" We take the ﬁrst example in the previous section again: Title (demarcation): Stimulating creativity in teaching Mathematics in the foundation phase. We now take this phrase to formulate a research question, like: How can creativity in teaching Mathematics in the foundation phase be stimulated? ACTIVITY 1.2 Now take your own examples, and do the same. Research area: The use of higher-order thinking skills in the study of literature Demarcation: Grade 11 learner application of selected higher-order thinking skills in the study of prescribed English poems Research question: ………………………………………………………………………………. Research area: Sport and aggression Demarcation: A case study of a primary school learner's aggression in a team sport Research question: …………………………………………………………………………… We have now completed the route from research idea to the research question. Your inquisitive and emphatic involvement as a human being in the lives of fellow human beings in the school context, remains important. Through keen observa- tion, critical questions, personal interest and own professional experience you can safely arrive at the starting point of all good research: the research question. RCE2601/1 5 Downloaded by Andy kiss ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|13574702 1.4 IDENTIFYING AND EVALUATING RESEARCH PROBLEMS For this part of our module, the ball is very much in your court. We involve you in a practical exercise to identify and evaluate a research problem. ACTIVITY 1.3 Study the introductory section of the following article: KENYAN SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS' LITERACY IN INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY (ICT): A SITUATION ANALYSIS (Article draft: Makhanu, EC & Kamper, GD. 2012) Introduction Education is in the process of a major technology change, where through innovations in technology and teaching methodology academic institutions are given an opportunity to work for the beneﬁt of the student (Cotton 2001:4). For organisations to compete in the global economy, improved management within the organisational environment is of paramount importance to strategic pursuits, competitive advantage and corporate survival. The quality of education can be enhanced through improved school leadership (Doss & Kamery 2005:1; Wango 2009:1; Bush, Kiggundu & Moorosi 2011:31). Improving school leadership is essential in view of the current global revolution in education due to the changing nature of work, the realities of the information age, new global partnerships and awareness of technology changes (Feldner 2003:1; Young & Dulewicz 2008:12). The increasing complexity of school leadership and the need for creative, divergent and unexpected solutions to school situations and problems require a challenging approach to the ﬁeld of educational management (Steyn & Kamper 2001:36; Kamper 2008:4). Educational leadership and its development are essential in improving school performance, and consequently, educational standards. School leadership is one of the major determining factors of the quality of education, and thus school performance (Wango 2009:1; Bottoms & O’Neill 2002:7-10; Spiro 2009:2). Despite the fact that the principal plays a signiﬁcant role in school- improvement activities, little information exists that describes the speciﬁc roles and responsibilities of the principal as a technology leader globally (Davies 2002:15; Persaud 2006:5). In Kenya, the education system is characterised by a very low application of e-technology, a situation most apparent in the resource-starved public-education sector and the economy at large (Ngare 2007:60; MoE 2006: 14). Nevertheless, school principals are exhorted by the Kenyan government to include Information and Communication Technology (ICT) as a major element in the school curriculum and organisation. At the same time, there is massive investment in buying infrastructure, but principals’ ICT training does not appear to be a priority. Training programmes in ICT for school leadership improvement will be necessary since the rapid change in ICT demands continuous training at all levels, hence the need for ICT-literacy development among educators (MoE 2006:15; Maurizio & Wilson 2004:3). Taking action towards the integration of ICT literacy into state standards, assessments and policies can improve ICT skills (MoE 2006 4). There is therefore a need for data that provides insight into, inter alia, the ICT-literacy levels of principals; guidelines for a regulatory ICT infrastructure; and a coherent national policy on ICT training of school principals. There is currently neither 6 Downloaded by Andy kiss ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|13574702 LEARNING UNIT 1: Research problems a standard assessment tool deemed appropriate for this purpose, nor is there information available indicating the ICT-literacy level of practising principals in Kenya. It is therefore necessary to assess the level of preparedness of principals for coping with planned technology changes in the education system. The purpose is to create a reference point for the evaluation of the ICT-literacy levels of practising principals and the subsequent integration of ICT-literacy into school leadership training. It is hoped that ICT-literacy integration can counteract obsolete management practices and improve networking with other principals in various aspects of school management. For the purposes of feasibility, our study is conﬁned to secondary-school principals. The question that comes to the fore is: What is the extent of ICT literacy among practising secondary-school principals in Kenya? Is there a relationship between ICT literacy and school performance? To address the research question, it was necessary to answer the following sub-questions: What is the level of ICT literacy among secondary-school principals in Kenya? What is the relationship between ICT literacy and school performance? What socio-demographic factors inﬂuence ICT literacy among secondary-school principals in Kenya? Now do the following: (1) Seek, and underline at least ﬁve sentences in which a speciﬁc challenge is indicated. (2) Seek, and underline three sentences in which the need to do research on the topic is indicated. (3) Evaluate the problem statement by using the following matrix. Just mark the applicable block with "X". ASPECT POOR AVERAGE GOOD EXCELLENT The challenges are clearly formulated The research problem is focused on a particular problem in a particular setting The problem statement is relevant – the solution or answer to this problem will make a worthwhile contribution to teaching and/or learning. There is a single main research question The main research question captures the essence of the problem The sub-questions support the main question In closing, what is your honest opinion of this research problem? Can you think of any related research problems? RCE2601/1 7 Downloaded by Andy kiss ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|13574702 1.5 PHRASING A RESEARCH PROBLEM In this closing section on research problems, we pull all the strings together of what we have discussed thus far, and give you the opportunity to phrase (write, formulate) a research problem yourself. For this, you are advised to revisit section 1.2 (From research focus to research problem) to refresh your memory on the important stages in arriving at a research problem. An important reminder. The key components of a research problem are: The introductory statement on the nature and relevance of the problem One or more research questions ASSIGNMENT 01 Study the following text – it is the introduction of a draft academic article on the future aspirations of children of street vendors in Ghana (Madjitey 2015) and answer the questions. For many children in Ghana, the reality of childhood and sound education is com- promised by premature involvement in economic activities. Statistics indicate that one in four children works in Ghana in either a labour market or household enterprise, while one out of ﬁve children goes to school and works (Canagarajah & Coulombe 1997:27; GSS 2011; USDL 2008) to augment the meagre incomes of their parents and guardians to survive. These children can be classiﬁed as child labourers due to the nature of the activities they engage in. The Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC 1989) and the 1992 constitution of Ghana seek to advocate that the child as an individual has rights to privacy, respect, reputation, honour, dignity and that, the child is eventually able to exercise rights (Christensen & James 2008; Daiute 2008; Morrow 2010; Munoz 2010). On the contrary, children become victims of child labour, child abuse and neglect, child trafﬁcking, deprivations, sexual exploitation, severe physical beatings and smacking, emotional abuse, killings and are subject to the effects of armed conﬂict and the lack of access to education, health care and safe water and sanitation (Ajiboye & Oladiti 2008; Marks 2012; Umar 2009; Windborne 2006). While chil- dren are to be protected, cared for, and trained in a skill that will be useful to their adult life, many children in Ghana spend their days on the street as the ability of social institutions in the Ghanaian societies to sustain the values and childcare practices have been weakened by factors mentioned above (Hollingsworth 2012). Although education is a basic human right and the Ghanaian government recog- nises the importance of education with the Education Act of 1961 and the Con- stitution of 1992, many children in Ghana do not have access to education. While childhood is assumed to be a time for play, education and socialisation (Brooks 2008:9; Desai 2010), many children in Ghana work under hazardous conditions that invariably interfere with their education and is harmful to their health and full development (Canagarajah & Coulombe 1997; Krauss 2013; Mba, Kwankye, Badasu, Ahiadeke & Anarﬁ 2009). Note what the focus of the article is. Then imagine that you are the author and you have to continue to write a problem statement. Do the following: Identify a particular problem or challenge from the text. 8 Downloaded by Andy kiss ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|13574702 LEARNING UNIT 1: Research problems Write a follow-up paragraph of about 100 words to the previous text, in which you indicate the nature of the problem. Then emphasise the need for doing research on this problem. Then proceed and write a research question. You can use one of the following prompts: What is the relationship between…? What are the causes for…? What are the key factors in…? RCE2601/1 9 Downloaded by Andy kiss ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|13574702 2 LEARNING UNIT 2 2 CRITICAL REASONING In this learning unit we attend to the following: The learning outcome and assessment criterion Logic as the essence of academic writing The elements of critical reasoning Analysing arguments Constructing a logical argument for a research problem 2.1 LEARNING OUTCOME AND ASSESSMENT CRITERION Speciﬁc outcome: Identify and apply elements of critical reasoning and critical analysis to selected educational texts. Assessment criteria Elements of critical reasoning are used to analyse arguments by other scholars in the process of compiling a literature review. Own logical arguments are constructed by using critical reasoning to motivate why a study based on a research problem identiﬁed in outcome 1 should be undertaken. 2.2 LOGIC AS THE ESSENCE OF ACADEMIC WRITING Academic writing is a rigorous process with very high standards. In all texts about academic writing, you will ﬁnd the notions logical, accurate, consistent, clear and relevant emphasised. At the heart of academic writing is the notion rigour, denoting absolute thoroughness. A well-known commercial advertisement talks of "the quest for zero defect" – never believe that you will not be up to it. As long as speciﬁc logical, language and technical requirements are met, you will be successful in academic writing. In this section, we deal speciﬁcally with logical requirements, as logic is indeed the essence of academic writing. This will become clear as we proceed. Since this module builds up to your ﬁnal and most important assignment, namely an academic writing task in the form of a proposal for action research, the following text and activities are important. Firstly, let us brieﬂy consider the importance of logical structure in any form of communicative presentation, be it a speech, a sermon, a ﬁ lm, a novel or an interview. Years ago, when you were in school yourself, part of your homework was to write essays. Your language teacher emphasised the importance of a catchy introduction, followed by the main body of your essay, and then the pertinent closing remarks. Here we have the logical structure in its most basic form. It is unthinkable to do without an introduction or to move it elsewhere in the text. Such a text would become nonsense (literally non-sensical) and impossible to follow. Like in your school essays of yesteryears, all sentences, paragraphs, sections and chapters in academic writing must show a logical sequence. Looking at paragraphs, 10 Downloaded by Andy kiss ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|13574702 LEARNING UNIT 2: Critical reasoning for instance: Paragraphs can never be loose chunks of information. A paragraph is linked to the one preceding it, and the one following it, thereby creating a logical ﬂow of thought in the document. You should thus always ensure that you do not jump from one sentence or paragraph to the next. Always imagine there is someone with you who immediately reads what you are writing. Will this person be able to follow and understand you all the time? If the reader gets confused or does not understand what you are trying to convey, alarm lights are on. ASSIGNMENT 02 (A) Do the following exercise in logical structuring. Arrange the following ﬁve sentences in a logical sequence, and then present them in a logically ﬂowing paragraph. Research conclusions are derived from the research focus and the data that has been collected and interpreted to shed light on the research problem. The planning of the research is valid if it is completely in line with the research problem. If any aspect of the research raises questions regarding the validity thereof, the scientiﬁc value of the research project is seriously compromised. The scientiﬁc quality of a research project is essentially determined by the validity of each aspect (planning, implementation, conclusions) thereof. The implementation of a research project is steered by the aim of the research. We will now shift our attention to critical reasoning itself, as it should be practised in academic writing. 2.3 THE ELEMENTS OF CRITICAL REASONING The essence of logic is to develop an argument in which a series of premises (statements) are made on the basis of which a conclusion can be made. Here is a very simple example: In school A teachers arrive late (premise 1), pupils walk around during class time (premise 2), and the school grounds are untidy (premise 3). Conclusion: There is no learning culture in school A. Thus, in an argument a point of view, a claim, a deduction, an opinion or an interpretation is stated with one or more reasons (premises) to conﬁrm the chosen stance. The reasons (premises) given should convincingly prove the validity of the claim, deduction, opinion or interpretation. The task of the researcher is to ascertain the following: The validity (truth) of each premise That a particular conclusion is sufﬁciently supported by the relevant premises The process of developing an argument is called reasoning – it involves careful consideration and clear formulation of premises en route to a valid conclusion. As you realised by now, the link between premises and a conclusion is crucial. If this link is in any way suspect, the reasoning (and thus the argument) goes astray. Such ﬂawed reasoning is called a fallacy. Unfortunately, such fallacies appear quite often RCE2601/1 11 Downloaded by Andy kiss ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|13574702 in academic writing, and you should be able to detect and avoid them. Common fallacies (errors in reasoning) are the use of the following: Large numbers. It is critical that a claim must be true because it is supported by many people. For example: "The actual danger of global warming is questionable in view of the thousands of people who believe that it is just a farce." Emotional language. Without increasing the supporting evidence, words (expressions) are added that are capable of stirring the emotions; for example, favourite; unforgettable; beautiful. An example: "Theory A is absolutely fantastic in explaining reading acquisition in young children." Hasty generalisations. After observing that a small number of the members of a certain group has a given property, it is inferred that the whole group has this property. For example: "Our data on six secondary schools in Soweto clearly indicate that South African secondary schools are struggling with science subjects". Instead of testing his/her views against reality, the researcher fashions reality according to his/her views. For example: "My research will provide irrevocable proof that education district ofﬁcials lack resources to improve service delivery in schools". Alleged certainty. To make an unqualiﬁed statement or to provide an unsubstantiated reason as if it represents a certainty, for example "research indicates that…", "… nobody will disagree that…", "…it is generally accepted that…" Oversimpliﬁcation. All the complexities of a problem are not taken into account and/or potentially relevant considerations are overlooked. Oversimpliﬁcation is a rather common problem in the interpretation of quantitative empirical data. For example: The researcher discusses only the negative responses on a particular questionnaire item, simply because these are in the majority. Rationalisation. A more or less acceptable reason is substituted for the real reason. Researchers are sometimes inclined to rationalise failures; for example, in the case of a low response rate in a questionnaire survey. The researcher may try to hide the real reason (a bad questionnaire) by providing a "rationalised" reason ("non-committed respondents"). Improper appeal to authority. The researcher believes that a certain claim must be true because an authority (like the Department of Education) accepts it. This is a common problem in ER, where researchers often uncritically accept the truth value of educational policy, simply because it is policy. Irrelevant authority. A reputable authority in one area is presented as an authority in a substantially different area. For example: An expert in linguistics is not necessarily an expert in language education and should thus not be quoted as such. Jargon. A claim is made to appear stronger by the use of bombastic or unexplained technical-sounding language. This is a rather common problem in writing on quantitative research ﬁndings, where researchers are inclined to dazzle the readers with unexplained statistical jargon. Ambiguous statements. These are usually the result of careless formulation and a lack of thorough proofreading. For example: "Teacher involvement in school management is a contentious issue. The research ﬁndings indicate that community members view it with apprehension." The last sentence is ambiguous. What is viewed "with apprehension": school management or teacher involvement in it? Vague terminology. The researcher uses slippery terms (i.e. terms with many nuances in meaning) such as "liberal", "democracy", "community" and "relevant", without explicitly deﬁning them for the purpose of own research. This neglect easily leads to misunderstandings and derailed argumentation. Circular (cyclic) argumentation. The researcher states that A is caused by B, but A and B are essentially the same. For example (Kaminsky 1974): "There's no 12 Downloaded by Andy kiss ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|13574702 LEARNING UNIT 2: Critical reasoning question but that the deterioration in modern moral values is to be attributed to people's inability to distinguish between what is right and what is wrong." The message from the above examples is clear: In reading academic texts, you should be sensitive not only to what is said, but also how it is said, and why. This sensitivity will also ensure that your own writing stands the test of critical reasoning. Critical reasoning also has distinct implications for the structure and style of academic writing. Since the academic reader must never be in doubt about the link between premises and conclusions, the logical, systematic development of text (be it a sentence, a paragraph, a section, a chapter) is essential. There exists a vast array of literature with guidelines on academic writing, but for our purposes, it sufﬁces to summarise these guidelines in an ABC for academic writing. Following this ABC should be part of the quality assurance in writing your assignments, not only for this module. A = ACCURACY Data (correct, relevant) Language (grammar, punctuation) Technical aspects (references, tables, graphics) B = BREVITY (focus, aims, problem, length) C = CLARITY Logic (structure, reasoning) Text (syntax, paragraphs, terminology) Style (register, reader-friendliness) A + B + C = Authority The template indicates that the key requirements for academic writing are accuracy, brevity and clarity. If one or more of these requirements are compromised, you can say goodbye to the authority of your work. The points made on accuracy are largely self-explanatory. You should strive for "zero defect" concerning the accuracy of your data, language and technical aspects. If any of these is missing, it will immediately degrade your work. The requirement of brevity implies that you waste no words or space in stating what your research is about, and why. What you write, and what you present (as ﬁgures or tables) should be to the point and functional. You avoid byroads to aspects that are perhaps interesting, but not relevant to your study. The clarity of your work is paramount. Can the reader follow your logic in terms of the meaningful (seamless) sequence of sentences, paragraphs and sections? Are your sentences and paragraphs digestible for the reader – short, and to the point? Do you use clearly deﬁned terminology, and is its use consistent? Is your writing style factual (non-emotional) and reader-friendly (always realising the presence of the reader). Adherence to the ABC will render your work authoritative. This is certainly what you wish for in the submission of assignments, and in the case of this module, especially the last assignment on action research. RCE2601/1 13 Downloaded by Andy kiss ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|13574702 After our attention to the requirements for critical reasoning and the implications for academic writing, we turn our attention to a fundamental aspect in academic reading, namely the analysis of arguments. 2.4 ANALYSING ARGUMENTS We now proceed to a practical exercise in analysing an argument. Argument analysis essentially involves an evaluation of the validity of the points (premises) stated, and the conclusion inferred from the premises. Keep in mind what you have learned thus far in this learning unit, especially about fallacies, and proceed with the next assignment. ASSIGNMENT 02 (B) Read the following passage several times and then reﬂect on the validity of the argument with the help of the prompts that follow. Curriculum implementation is of phenomenal importance and needs to be done correctly to propel the learners to understand and embrace knowledge. There can be no doubt about policy experts' view that curriculum implementation always promotes thinking and learning of new things in the daily working en- vironment of all educators. Generally, teachers have excellent knowledge and wisdom of tackling the obstacles in the curriculum implementation. Teachers are the stronghold of successful future children and if the children become passive, this passiveness will be seen in the developmental and progressive stages of the learners' life through the school system. Note the ﬁrst three sentences on the topic of curriculum implementation. Would you say that there is a logical link (i.e. one statement leading to the next) between these three sentences? Brieﬂy motivate your answer. Have you noticed any instances where the author tries to strengthen his/her point by using emotional language or strong adjectives? If yes, which? Did you ﬁnd any indications that the author tries to strengthen his/her point by generalising without any proof? In the previous section, improper appeal to authority was mentioned, which means that a claim is regarded as true because an authority accepts it. There is a distinct example of an improper appeal to authority in this passage. What is it? Note the last sentence. Would you regard it as a proper conclusion for the argument on curriculum implementation? Why? 14 Downloaded by Andy kiss ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|13574702 LEARNING UNIT 2: Critical reasoning 2.5 CONSTRUCTING A LOGICAL ARGUMENT FOR A RESEARCH PROBLEM Now that you have acquainted yourself with the key aspects of sound reasoning (argumentation), the time is ripe for you to do an exercise in argument writing. Due to its importance, this exercise is to be submitted as the third part of Assignment 02. ASSIGNMENT 02 (C) In this assignment, we present you with a research question. Your task is to write an introductory argument for this research question. The research problem and ensuing question are the following: Research problem: Many high schools in Limpopo have to deal with learners who come from child-headed families due to parents working far from home. The impact of this problem is lack of support in schoolwork and attendance of school meetings. Research question: What are the key factors and solutions in dealing with learners from child-headed families in selected Limpopo high schools? Imagine that you are the researcher to undertake this study. In developing your argument for this study, you should ﬁrstly refresh your memory by reading section 2.3 again. Then indicate your three premises and conclusion as follows: First premise: The background to this question Second premise: Why you focus particularly on secondary schools? Third premise: What contribution your research will make to the improvement of educational practice? Conclusion: Why research attention is necessary? Ensure that, where possible, you strengthen your ﬁrst and second premise by providing proof (for example: reference to an article in a newspaper and/or your own experience). Devote one paragraph to each of the premises, as well as the conclusion. The length of your argument should not exceed one page. Please note that when you submit Assignment 02, ensure that you submit the three parts of this assignment: 2(a): The exercise in logical structuring 2(b): Evaluating the validity of an argument 2(c): Developing an argument for a research problem RCE2601/1 15 Downloaded by Andy kiss ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|13574702 3 LEARNING UNIT 3 3 RESEARCH SKILLS In this learning unit we attend to the following: The learning outcome and assessment criterion Research paradigms Literature study Research approaches Data collection and analysis Ethical considerations 3.1 LEARNING OUTCOME AND ASSESSMENT CRITERION Speciﬁc outcome: Develop basic research skills. Assessment criteria Research paradigms and designs are explored and discussed. The features of the literature study are discussed. Epistemological underpinnings surrounding qualitative, quantitative and mixed- methods approaches are brieﬂy described and discussed. Procedures for collection and analysis of qualitative and quantitative data are indicated. Ethical considerations associated with research in education are explained. 3.2 RESEARCH PARADIGMS The term paradigm is not part of everyday language, and you may have never encountered this strange word before. However, do not worry – the explanation is quite simple and highly important for your work as teacher-researcher. Going back to its Latin roots, the term paradigm means something like ''shared view" or "overarching perspective". Why is this term crucial in research, and where do you ﬁt into the picture? The ﬁrst point to make here is that research is not some mechanised activity. Research is conducted by human beings, with widely different views on the world and on humankind. A researcher can never become detached from his/her own fundamental beliefs, although the latter can change over time. The point is that a researcher conducts research as a human being with a particular worldview. This worldview will place the researcher in a group (a paradigm) of similarly minded researchers. A paradigm is thus a unit of consensus and serves to distinguish one scientiﬁc community from another. The main aspects of a research paradigm are concerned with ontolog y, epistemolog y and methodolog y. We will now look at their meanings: Ontology – my view of reality. For example: Was our world created, or is it ever developing through evolution? 16 Downloaded by Andy kiss ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|13574702 LEARNING UNIT 3: Research skills Epistemology – my view of knowledge. For example: Can social reality (how people live and behave) be studied in the same way as natural reality (e.g. weather patterns, animal behaviour)? Methodology – my view on investigation. For example: Given my ontological and epistemological views, what methods are appropriate to investigate a particular phenomenon? For the purposes of our module, it sufﬁces to distinguish three major research paradigms that have developed over time, namely the positivist, interpretative and critical research paradigms. Read the following descriptions carefully, and decide which of the three paradigms applies to you. Positivist research paradigm: Reality is out there as a single entity and researching it is a cyclical activity with the focus on objective facts and mainly numerical (statistical) evidence. Feelings and emotions should have little (or no) place in the interpretation of data. Interpretative research paradigm: The researcher and participants are in an individually experienced reality (there are thus many realities) in which feelings and subjective views are part of the collection and interpretation of data. Critical research paradigm. Reality is out of order in many respects. The researcher is obliged to do research (e.g. on power relationships) and produce results that can contribute to the elimination of institutional and social ills. Where do you ﬁt in? Perhaps in some grey area between two of them? This can indeed be, because researchers can in no way be compartmentalised according to this division. However, you will undoubtedly be inclined to one of them, and this is very valuable self-knowledge in research. Therefore, we end this section with the following dictum: know yourself as researcher before attempting research. We now move on to issues that are more practical. We deal ﬁrstly with the essential, fundamental element of all academic research (and thus ER), namely literature study. 3.3 LITERATURE STUDY A thorough literature study is a characteristic of academic research. A literature study usually involves an investigation of already completed research, as well as a scrutiny of theories that are important for the scientiﬁc interpretation of the researcher's empirical data. The fact of the matter is: Research becomes scientiﬁc research only through literature study. Research as such is not scientiﬁc, although often thoroughly done for a particular purpose (for example, opinion surveys and market research). In ER, literature study enables the researcher to construct three frameworks, namely the conceptual framework, the theoretical framework and the contextual framework. Literature study means that the researcher surveys literature that is relevant to his/ her research question to establish (a) what is happening in practice (the contextual framework), (b) how key concepts are understood (the conceptual framework), and (c) what prominent theoretical insights can provide explanations of empirical data on the research question (the theoretical framework.) The literature study is usually done prior to the empirical study, and with good reason. Because only through literature study can the researcher know what has already been researched and found regarding his/her research topic, and what area(s) need further research (research gaps). The literature study can also provide useful RCE2601/1 17 Downloaded by Andy kiss ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|13574702 ideas on how to conduct one's own research and can serve as an example on how to report on completed research. In short, the literature study provides the academic label for your research. How does one conduct a literature study? Be aware that it is a tedious process. In simple form, the process is the following: Your research question has one or more words that can serve as search terms (e.g. inclusive education). This search term is fed into a search engine (such as Google Scholar), and with adjustment of many possible variables (e.g. time, country, type of school, gender) a magnitude of possible sources is produced. You then browse through all the titles, and those that seem really worthwhile for your topic are marked for further reading. You will immediately realise that this can be a time-consuming process, and that the proper selection of sources is particularly important. But if done correctly, it will undoubtedly be an enriching experience; and be assured, for your research task at the end of this module you will only be required to ﬁnd and read a limited number of literature sources. This will be discussed later on in more detail. ACTIVITY 3.1 Read Unit 2 in the reader. Then compile your own list of the 10 most dangerous pitfalls in the literature study. We now provide you with an opportunity to do an electronic search for research sources yourself. Please note: This exercise is very important for the completion of Assignment 03 later on. As mentioned above, the ﬁrst step in executing a literature study is to conduct an electronic search for sources (e.g. books, journal articles) that are relevant for his/her investigation. The search is done with the help of search terms that are taken from the research title or topic. Let us assume that your research is about the role of homework in the foundation phase. One can clearly distinguish two search terms, namely "homework" and "foundation phase". ACTIVITY 3.2 Open Google Scholar on your computer and type the search terms. A number of articles will appear. Browse through the titles and then select one article that seems of particular interest to you. Read this article thoroughly, and take note of particularly important points that are raised in the article. Select ONE of these points, and write it down in your own words, followed by the source reference, as in the following (ﬁctitious) example: Homework in the foundation phase should be learner-centred, not parent-centred (Marshall 2014:23) The issue of text references is highly important in literature study and some further remarks are called for: From the example, you can see that a text reference has three pieces of information: Author surname(s), year of publication and page number. The information is usually provided in either of two formats. You can start with the source, or put it at the end of the sentence – the choice is largely a stylistic matter. Take special note of the following (ﬁctitious) examples: Brown (2011:23) states that most victims of bullying keep silent about their ordeal. 18 Downloaded by Andy kiss ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|13574702 LEARNING UNIT 3: Research skills OR Most victims of bullying keep silent about their ordeal (Brown 2011:23). If reference is made to two authors and their names appear in the text, their names should be joined by "and". However, if their names appear in brackets as part of a reference, their names should be joined by "&", for example: Brown and Smith (2009:200) stated that Environmental Education should be in- corporated into the curriculum. Environmental Education should be incorporated into the curriculum (Brown & Smith 1999:200). To summarise: Literature study involves gathering relevant information (data) on the context, key concepts and theory related to the research topic. This informa- tion is then presented concisely in three sections (context, concepts, theory) with minute attention to the correct use of references. After completion of the literature study, the stage is set to advance to ﬁeld work, which means going out to collect data from real-life people and situations. This is usually referred to as the empirical research stage, as discussed in the next section. 3.4 RESEARCH APPROACHES IN EMPIRICAL RESEARCH ER, as other branches of scientiﬁc research, leans heavily on the collection and analysis of empirical research data. The term "empirical" refers to everything that is grounded in one's own or others' experience(s). Empirical research (or ﬁeld work) will thus focus on data from a particular setting (e.g. a classroom, a school, a school district, a community) and how that setting is experienced by those who live or work there. The provision of education is a very practical matter, and it is thus self-evident that ER data will primarily be forthcoming from educational practice. The typical research sequence is that a certain challenge or problem in educational practice is identiﬁed (as explained in learning unit 1) after which literature data on the subject is studied (as described in the preceding section). Only then is the ﬁeld (the particular setting as determined by the research problem) entered for data collection. The collection of empirical data is usually an exciting phase in every ER project, but it must be planned and executed correctly. It is important to realise that research follows the typical course of a project. As any engineer will tell you, a project can only be successful if its planning is meticulous, and its execution highly controlled. The ﬁrst part of a research project thus concerns the blueprint (design) thereof. This design has to do with the chosen research approach. In the social sciences (and thus in ER), there are three possible approaches to empirical research, namely the quantitative approach, the qualitative approach and the mixed-method (quantitative +qualitative) approach. As you can deduce from these terms, the ﬁrst approach concerns numerical and statistical data, whereas the second approach deals with visual and verbal data. There are substantial, even fundamental differences between the quantitative and qualitative research approach, as is evident from the following activity. RCE2601/1 19 Downloaded by Andy kiss ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|13574702 ACTIVITY 3.3 Analyse the following table and write a summary of what you regard as the three main differences between the qualitative and quantitative research approaches. Category Qualitative research Quantitative research Nature of reality There is no single reality. There is a single, Multiple realities are socially objective reality. There constructed through individual are facts with a single and collective experiences of objective reality that can the situation. be separated from the feelings and beliefs of individuals. Relationship Researcher and research Researcher functions are between subject interact to inﬂuence independent of subject researcher and one another and are to a large degree. research subject inseparably interconnected. Various strategies are employed to minimise the effects of interaction upon research ﬁndings. Possibility of The aim of inquiry is to The ultimate goal is generalisation develop a body of knowledge to develop a body of unique to the individual being knowledge in the form of studied and that can be used generalisations. These to develop assumptions are universal, thus about the individual. Believes context-free. that human actions are strongly inﬂuenced by the settings in which they occur. Generalisations are thus context-bound, never universal. Possible links It is impossible to distinguish Every action or effect between cause causes from effects. All can be explained by a and effect. elements in a situation cause that precedes are in a state of mutual the effect in time. The simultaneous interaction. research purpose is to The research purpose is to establish relationships understand the phenomenon between causes and from the participant's effects and indicate their perspectives. statistical signiﬁcance. Role of values in Research is value-bound, and Research should be inquiry thus inevitably inﬂuenced by made as value-free the values of the researcher as possible by using in his/her choice of theory engineered research and methodology, and the design and objective values inherent in the context data-collection of the inquiry. The researcher procedures. Researcher becomes immersed in the remains cynically situation and accounts for the detached from the study subjectivity of own feelings to avoid subjective bias. and values. 20 Downloaded by Andy kiss ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|13574702 LEARNING UNIT 3: Research skills Research Methods and processes Methods and processes methods and are ﬂexible. The researcher are meticulously planned process makes (or adapts) decisions and captured in a about the data collection research strategy prior strategies during the study. to data collection. Source: Adapted from Booyse (1999) Note that it is perfectly legitimate and often even advisable to use both the quantita- tive and the qualitative approach in one research project. The rationale for this is to verify the validity of one data set (e.g. a quantitative one) with a second data set (e.g. a qualitative one). This approach is called the mixed-methods approach, and it can be put in good use in ER. For example, in research on parent involvement in schools, a questionnaire can be sent out to at least 100 parents. On the basis of tendencies found in the quantitative questionnaire data, a group interview can be set up with six to eight parents, probing some key issues in parent involvement in depth, thus enriching the quantitative data with qualitative data. Once the research approach has been determined, the researcher proceeds to the nitty-gritty of the actual collection of the data, and analysis thereof. 3.5 DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS When the research design (the base plan) has been determined, attention can be shifted to the detail of the actual undertaking of the research. This planning follows a logical sequence in dealing with the following questions: Who has the required information? How can I collect this information (data)? In what way should I analyse (sort, organise) the data? Based on these three questions, we subsequently attend to three crucial issues in executing empirical research: the research participants, the data collection method(s), and the procedure for data analysis. 3.5.1 Participants When the research method is put together, the ﬁrst practical question concerns the data source: Who has the information (data) that is important for my research? In ER it can be a particular group of learners or teachers, it can be principals or even parents. When the researcher has decided on whom to approach, a process of sampling (in quantitative research) or participant selection (in qualitative research) must be started. What does this mean? The practical challenge in research is that one usually cannot involve anybody in your research. The participants must be selected in some way or another. The way in which this selection is done, differs fundamentally between quantitative and qualitative research. In quantitative research (usually a questionnaire survey) the term random sampling is central. This means that all members of a certain population (e.g. Grade 11 learners) have the same chance of being chosen for participation in the research project. The basic requirement is that you should have lists with the names of all your possible RCE2601/1 21 Downloaded by Andy kiss ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|13574702 participants, from which you then select 20% to 40% (whatever percentage in this range you regard as accountable) sample by simply marking every ﬁfth or eighth (or whatever your calculation determines) name on all the lists. For example, let us say that you want to involve all Grade 10 learners from three schools in your area to ﬁll in a questionnaire. The total number of learners is 300. You decide on a 33% sample, meaning that of the 300 learners, only 100 will be selected to participate. Working from the lists of grade 10 learners from the three schools, you simply mark every third name. The marked names constitute your sample. Note that in small-scale research projects, typical of action research, population sampling can be used. This means that, for example, the total parent population of Grade 7 learners in a particular school are chosen for ﬁlling in a questionnaire. Ideally, this should be a once-off event, requesting such parents to ﬁll in the questionnaire when they are at school in a group, as it can happen at a parent evening. The challenge is always to ensure that a signiﬁcant number of respondents actually participate. Remember that quantitative research works with quantities. A minimum of 30 participants counts as an acceptable quantity. In qualitative research, the process is entirely different. There is no element of randomness, and the number of participants is small. The emphasis is on the purposive selection of participants, on the basis of speciﬁc criteria, for example, the participant's experience of being bullied at school. The exact number of participants is of no consequence – it can even be just one. The key consideration is: Can the participant(s) provide me with the rich, deep data that I need for my research? When the participants (usually called respondents in quantitative research) have been determined, the time is ripe for deciding on the most opportune way to collect (or gather) the data. 3.5.2 Data collection In this section, we discuss three popular methods of data collection, namely questionnaires, interviews and observation. 3.5.2.1 Questionnaires In quantitative research, data collection is seemingly simple. It usually involves the composition of a questionnaire and its completion by the respondents. However, be warned, it is not that easy. The composition of a questionnaire is a sophisticated process. Each question (item) must be linked to the research focus and must be very clearly (unambiguously) formulated. The Likert scale is a very popular design that consists of a statement, followed by a scale on which the respondent marks only one of the following options: Strongly agree – Agree – Disagree – Strongly disagree. The Likert scale items are normally preceded by one or more questions on the respondent's age, gender, and experience – restricted to biographical information that is essential for the research. 22 Downloaded by Andy kiss ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|13574702 LEARNING UNIT 3: Research skills ACTIVITY 3.3 The typical format of a questionnaire is illustrated in Unit 3 in the reader. Read the entire questionnaire and then study the Likert items in Questions 4, 7, 8 and 9. We have deliberately deleted some of the items. Construct your own items by ﬁlling in the blank spaces, as a practical exercise in item construction. After the questionnaire has been compiled, it is important to test it out on a small number of typical respondents. Possible misunderstandings and the approximate time for completion of the questionnaire can thus be determined. Ideally, the researcher should distribute and collect the questionnaires him-/herself. In this way, a high response rate can be assured. We now shift our attention to data collection in qualitative research. Various meth- ods can be used here, with interviewing at the top of the list. Other possibilities are observation, pictures, photographs, narratives, diary entries and biographies. Since interviews and observations are the most commonly used, and the probability that you will use these methods is the highest, we will restrict our discussion to these two data collection methods. 3.5.2.2 Interviews Typically, qualitative research interviews are much more like conversations than formal events with predetermined response categories. The researcher explores a few broad research-related topics to help uncover the participant's perspectives but always respects how the participant frames and structures the responses. The most important aspect of the interviewer's approach concerns an attitude of acceptance – that the participant's information is valuable and useful. Interviewers should have superb listening skills and be skilful in personal interaction, question framing and gentle probing for elaboration. You can interview an individual or a group. The latter is known as a focus group interview and means that participants partake in a group discussion and give their views on aspects of the research focus. The researcher asks broadly formulated questions to encourage discussion and the expression of differing opinions and points of view. A focus group consists ideally of ﬁve to eight participants who must be from the same status and background, to avoid any possibility of some participants intimidating the others. For example, you cannot have Grade 12 and Grade 8 learners in the same group – this composition will compromise a free ﬂow of conversation. A research interview (individual or in focus group) is conducted on the basis of an interview schedule. This is a list of a small number of carefully prepared questions on speciﬁc matters related to the research focus, as you can see from the following example. INTERVIEW SCHEDULE – PARENTS The purpose of this interview schedule is to investigate the lifestyle of street vendors’ children. It is also to investigate how the familial circumstances of street vendors’ children affect their socio-educational development. It will require participants to tell their own stories and how they experience the phenomenon being investigated. 1. Did you work as a child? Please tell me everything you can remember from your own childhood. 2. How will you describe the experience of making a living on the street? RCE2601/1 23 Downloaded by Andy kiss ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|13574702 3. In our introductory discussion, you told me that you have x children who work for you on the street. Please tell me what they do, how many hours per day they work, how they feel about it and what they experience. Tell me about your children's work. 4. Do your children go to school? 4.1 If yes, what effect does work have on their progress in school? 4.2 If no, why not? 5. How do you really feel about the fact that your children work for you on the street? 6. Do you think the work your children do now will prepare them for an occupation or business in future? 7. What aspirations do you have for your children? 8. Thank you very much for everything you have shared with me. Is there anything else you want to add to our discussion? Note that the length of an interview should not exceed 60 minutes for children or 90 minutes for adults. Data is usually captured electronically (with a voice recorder) and the participant(s) should concede to this. The recording is afterwards transcribed, meaning that it is transformed to plain text. ACTIVITY 3.4 Let us assume that you are doing research on bullying. Who would be the mem- bers (maximum eight) of a focus group at your school, and why? What would be your interview questions (not more than ﬁve) to the group? 3.5.2.3 Observation Observation is another very popular method for data collection in qualitative research. This involves that the researcher carefully observes a selected person or situation, and speciﬁcally notes particular incidences, for example, signs of aggression. The observations are noted as soon as possible and are kept in a dedicated notebook or ﬁle, usually known as a ﬁeldwork journal. Keep in mind that observation and interviewing (as discussed above) usually go hand in hand. A particular challenge in observation is to avoid (as far as possible) the Hawthorne effect. This has to do with the phenomenon that people start to act differently and even unnaturally once they realise that they are being observed. The key requirement for accountable observation is thus that it should be optimally unobtrusive. ACTIVITY 3.5 Again we imagine that you are doing research on bullying at your school, and you have decided to do observations on the playgrounds. Where and how would you position yourself or move around, and what would you speciﬁcally look out for? How would you capture this data? The product of your data collection will be a data set, consisting of question- naires (in quantitative research) or interview transcriptions and ﬁeldwork notes 24 Downloaded by Andy kiss ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|13574702 LEARNING UNIT 3: Research skills (in qualitative research). Now the researcher can start with the challenging task of data analysis. 3.5.3 Data analysis Once the qualitative or quantitative data has been collected, how does one proceed to ﬁnd out what the data really say? The ﬁrst task is to create some order in the data and to categorise the ﬁndings. This process is known as data analysis. Data analysis thus involves the task to a group or classify the collected data, and to indicate proﬁles and tendencies in the ﬁndings. Again, the procedures followed in quantitative and qualitative research differ substantially. Quantitative data analysis is usually very neat since so much of the process can be done electronically. The data of each questionnaire is captured on a computer, and thereafter the required analysis can be done with the aid of software like Excel. In the case of a small questionnaire survey (e.g. about 50 questionnaires) the data analysis can even be done by hand through mere counting of the frequencies on each item. With bigger data sets, a series of statistical computations can be used; however, this falls beyond the scope of our module. The end result of quantitative data analysis usually consists of a number of tables, supplemented by graphical presentations like pie charts and histograms, which clearly indicate tendencies in the data. The beauty in this is that the tables and ﬁgures are created by the software, creating a consistently clear and neat picture of the data. Qualitative data analysis requires much more personal involvement and interaction of the researcher with the data. The collected data usually consists of a number of interview transcripts and ﬁeldwork journal notes. The challenge is thus to work through these texts and to arrange the content according to emerging topics. The proven procedure for this is to ﬁrstly read all the texts thoroughly. Those texts that are particularly

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