Ethics for the Information Age, 8th Edition, Chapter 1 PDF

Ethics for the Information Age Eighth Edition Chapter 1 Catalysts for Change Copyright © 2020, 2017, 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Learning Objectives 1.1 I...

Ethics for the Information Age Eighth Edition Chapter 1 Catalysts for Change Copyright © 2020, 2017, 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Learning Objectives 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Milestones in computing 1.3 Milestones in networking 1.4 Milestones in information storage and retrieval 1.5 Information technology issues Copyright © 2020, 2017, 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.1 Introduction Copyright © 2020, 2017, 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Information Age Unprecedented access to information in modern era Catalysts – Low-cost computers – High-speed communication networks New technologies continue to emerge – Smartphones – Video streaming services – Voice-activated digital assistants – Low-cost drones – Self-driving cars Copyright © 2020, 2017, 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Figure 1-1: Samsung Galaxy S9 Plus Low-cost computers and high-speed communication networks make possible the products of the Information Age, such as the Samsung Galaxy S9 Plus. It functions as a phone, text messager, email client, Web browser, camera, video recorder, digital compass, and much more. Copyright © 2020, 2017, 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Impact of Modern Computing and Communications Systems World in 1950 – Only a handful of electronic digital computers – Internet did not exist Contemporary world – Networked devices containing embedded microprocessors surround us – We engage with these devices for hours each day Copyright © 2020, 2017, 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Our Relationship with Technology (1 of 2) Dynamic between people, technology – People create, adopt technology – Once adopted, technology changes society Using technology can change people – Experiences cause physical changes in brains (e.g., London taxi drivers) – Getting information releases dopamine in brain, producing a desire to seek out additional information – Experiences with technology can have psychological effects, too (e.g., dependency on cell phones) Copyright © 2020, 2017, 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Our Relationship with Technology (2 of 2) Technologies solve problems, but may create new problems – Automobiles ▪ Greater mobility ▪ Traffic jams – Web ▪ Supports valuable information retrieval tools ▪ Children may be exposed to inappropriate content – Low-cost international communication ▪ Global access to news, entertainment ▪ Jobs outsourced to less expensive labor markets Copyright © 2020, 2017, 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Amish Selectively Adopt New Technologies AP Photos/The Indianapolis Star and News, Mike Fender Copyright © 2020, 2017, 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Theme of Chapter 1: Social-Technological Cycle Social conditions can lead to creation and adoption of new information technologies Adopting new information technologies can change social conditions Copyright © 2020, 2017, 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.2 Milestones in Computing Copyright © 2020, 2017, 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Aids to Manual Calculating (1 of 2) Tablet to record numbers – Clay, wax tablets (ancient times) – Slates (late Middle Ages) – Paper tablets (19th century to present) Abacus to perform arithmetic – Rods or wires in rectangular frame – Lines drawn on a counting board Copyright © 2020, 2017, 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Aids to Manual Calculating (2 of 2) Mathematical tables – Tables of logarithms (17th century) – Income tax tables (today) Copyright © 2020, 2017, 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Slate and Counting Board (Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division ]L C-USZ62-95297]) Copyright © 2020, 2017, 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Early Mechanical Calculators (1 of 2) Calculators of Pascal and Leibniz (17th century) – Worked with whole numbers – Unreliable Arithmometer of de Colmar (19th century) – Took advantage of advances in machine tools – Adopted by insurance companies Copyright © 2020, 2017, 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Early Mechanical Calculators (2 of 2) Printing calculator of Scheutzes (19th century) – Used method of differences pioneered by Babbage – Adopted by Dudley Observatory in New York – Completed astronomical calculations Copyright © 2020, 2017, 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Social Change → Market for Calculators Gilded Age (late 19th century America) – Rapid industrialization – Economic expansion – Concentration of corporate power New, larger corporations – Multiple layers of management – Multiple locations – Needed up-to-date, comprehensive, reliable, and affordable information Copyright © 2020, 2017, 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Calculator Adoptions → Social Change Fierce market – Continuous improvements in size, speed, ease of use – Sales increased rapidly “Deskilling” and feminization of bookkeeping – People of average ability quite productive – Calculators 6 faster than adding by hand – Wages dropped – Women replaced men Copyright © 2020, 2017, 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Figure 1-4: Feminization of Bookkeeping Mechanical calculators led to the “de-skilling” and “feminization” of bookkeeping. (Automatic Data Processing (ADP)) Copyright © 2020, 2017, 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Cash Register (1 of 2) In late 1800s smaller stores evolved into “department stores” with multiple departments Two problems faced by department store owners – Keeping accurate sales records – Preventing embezzlement from clerks Response to problems: cash register – Created printed, itemized receipts – Maintained printed log of transactions – Rang bell every time drawer was opened Copyright © 2020, 2017, 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Cash Register (2 of 2) An NCR cash register in Miller’s Shoe Shine Parlor, Dayton, Ohio (1904). (The N CR Archive at Dayton History) Copyright © 2020, 2017, 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Punched Card Tabulation Punched cards (late 19th century) – One record per card – Cards could be sorted into groups, allowing computation of subtotals by categories Early adopters – U.S. Bureau of the Census – Railroads – Retail organizations – Heavy industries Copyright © 2020, 2017, 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Tabulators → Data-Processing Systems Data-processing system – Receives input data – Performs one or more calculations – Produces output data Punched cards – Stored input data and intermediate results – Stored output – On most sophisticated systems, also stored programs Copyright © 2020, 2017, 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved IBM and the Holocaust Hitler came to power in Germany in 1933 IBM CEO Watson ignored anti-Semitic violence, creation of concentration camps IBM expanded German subsidiary and sought contracts with German government Nazis used IBM machines to conduct censuses, generate lists of Jews Lists facilitated seizure of assets and deportation to concentration camps Copyright © 2020, 2017, 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Precursors of Commercial Computers Atanasoff-Berry Computer: vacuum tubes ENIAC: externally programmed with wires EDVAC: program stored in memory Small-Scale Experimental Machine: CRT memory Copyright © 2020, 2017, 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Programming the ENIAC The ENIAC ’s first six programmers were women. Every instruction was programmed by connecting several wires into plugboards. (Corbis Historical/Getty Images) Copyright © 2020, 2017, 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved First Commercial Computers Remington-Rand – Completed UNIVAC in 1951 – Delivered to U.S. Bureau of the Census – Predicted winner of 1952 Presidential election I BM – Larger base of customers – Far superior sales and marketing organization – Greater investment in research and development – Dominated mainframe market by mid-1960s Copyright © 2020, 2017, 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved CBS News Coverage of 1952 Presidential Election Featured UNIVAC Computer CBS news coverage of the 1952 presidential election included predictions made by a U NIVAC computer. When the computer predicted Eisenhower would win in a landslide, consternation followed. (Photo reproduced courtesy of Unisys Corporation) Copyright © 2020, 2017, 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Programming Languages Assembly language – Symbolic representations of machine instructions – Programs just as long as machine language programs FORTRAN – First higher-level language (shorter programs) – Designed for scientific applications COBOL – U.S. Department of Defense standard – Designed for business applications Copyright © 2020, 2017, 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Time-Sharing Systems and BASIC Time-Sharing Systems – Divide computer time among multiple users – Users connect to computer via terminals – Cost of ownership spread among more people – Gave many more people access to computers BASIC – Developed at Dartmouth College – Simple, easy-to-learn programming language – Popular language for teaching programming Copyright © 2020, 2017, 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Transistor Replacement for vacuum tube Invented at Bell Labs (1948) Semiconductor – Faster – Cheaper – More reliable – More energy efficient Copyright © 2020, 2017, 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Integrated Circuit Semiconductor containing transistors, capacitors, and resistors Invented at Fairchild Semiconductor and Texas Instruments Advantages over parts they replaced – Smaller – Faster – More reliable – Less expensive Copyright © 2020, 2017, 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Fairchild Semiconductor Founders The eight founders of Fairchild Semiconductor on the factory floor. Gordon Moore is second from the left and Robert Noyce is on the right. (Wayne Miller/Magnum Photos, Inc.) Copyright © 2020, 2017, 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved IBM System/360 (1 of 2) Before System/360 – IBM dominated mainframe market in 1960s – IBM computers were incompatible – Switch computers → rewrite programs System/360 – Series of 19 computers with varying levels of power – All computers could run same programs – Upgrade without rewriting programs Copyright © 2020, 2017, 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved IBM System/360 (2 of 2) In the 1960s, I BM dominated the mainframe computer market in the United States. (H. Armstrong Roberts/Classic Stock/Alamy) Copyright © 2020, 2017, 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Microprocessor Computer inside a semiconductor chip Invented in 1970 at Intel Made personal computers practical Copyright © 2020, 2017, 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Antecedents to the Personal Computer (1 of 2) Whole Earth Catalog – “Sort of like Google in paperback form” (Steve Jobs) – Stewart Brand saw “technology as a tool for individual and collective transformation” (Fred Turner) People’s Computer Company – Educated people on how to use computers – People gathered around time-share computers – Culture promoted free exchange of software Copyright © 2020, 2017, 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Antecedents to the Personal Computer (2 of 2) Homebrew Computer Club – Meeting place for hobbyists – Steve Wozniak created system that became Apple I Copyright © 2020, 2017, 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Steve Wozniak and Steve Jobs With Apple 1 Personal Computer e Steve Jobs (right) convinced Steve Wozniak (left) they should go into business selling the personal computer Wozniak designed. They named their company Apple Computer. (Kimberly White/Reuters) Copyright © 2020, 2017, 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Personal Computer (1 of 2) Altair 8800 – Gates and Allen created BASIC interpreter – Interpreter pirated at Homebrew Computer Club meeting Personal computers became popular – Apple Computer: Apple II – Tandy Corporation: TRS 80 Copyright © 2020, 2017, 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Personal Computer (2 of 2) Businesses drawn to personal computers – Computer spreadsheet program: VisiCalc – IBM launches IBM PC Copyright © 2020, 2017, 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.3 Milestones in Networking Copyright © 2020, 2017, 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Early Networking: Semaphore Telegraph Tower A semaphore telegraph tower on the first line from Paris to Lille (1794). (Interfoto/Alamy) Copyright © 2020, 2017, 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Electricity and Electromagnetism Volta invented battery (1799) Oersted: electricity creates magnetic field Sturgeon constructed electromagnet Henry: communication using electromagnets (1830) Copyright © 2020, 2017, 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Telegraph (1 of 2) U.S. government funded first line – 40 miles from Washington, D.C. to Baltimore – Built by Samuel Morse in 1843-1844 Private networks flourished – 12,000 miles of lines in 1850 – Transcontinental line in 1861 put Pony Express out of business – 200,000 miles of lines by 1877 Copyright © 2020, 2017, 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Telegraph (2 of 2) Technology proved versatile – Fire alarm boxes – Police call boxes Copyright © 2020, 2017, 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Impact of Telegraph Pony Express riders lost their jobs when the U S transcontinental telegraph line was completed in 1861. (North Wind Picture Archives / Alamy) Copyright © 2020, 2017, 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Telephone Alexander Graham Bell – Constructed harmonic telegraph – Leveraged concept into first telephone Social impact of telephone – Blurred public life / private life boundary – Eroded traditional social hierarchies – Reduced privacy – Enabled first “online” communities Copyright © 2020, 2017, 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Typewriter and Teletype Typewriter – Individual production of “type set” documents – Common in offices by 1890s Teletype – Typewriter connected to telegraph line – Popular uses ▪ Transmitting news stories ▪ Sending records of stock transactions Copyright © 2020, 2017, 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Radio Pioneers – Hertz generated electromagnetic waves – Marconi invented radio First used in business – Wireless telegraph – Transmit voices Entertainment uses – Suggested by Sarnoff – Important entertainment medium by 1930s Copyright © 2020, 2017, 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Television Became popular in 1950s – Price fell dramatically – Number of stations increased Social effects – Worldwide audiences – Networks strive to be first to deliver news – Impact of incorrect information; e.g., 2000 presidential election Copyright © 2020, 2017, 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Hundreds of Millions Watch Moon Landing in 1969 On July 20, 1969, television images of Neil Armstrong walking on the Moon were broadcast to hundreds of millions of viewers around the world. (Courtesy of NASA) Copyright © 2020, 2017, 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Remote Computing Stibitz and Williams built Complex Number Calculator at Bell Labs Bell Labs part of AT&T (phone company) Teletype chosen for input/output Allowed operator to be distant from machine Long-distance demonstration between New Hampshire and New York City Copyright © 2020, 2017, 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved ARPANET DoD created ARPA in late 1950s Licklider conceived of “Galactic Network” Decentralized design to improve survivability Packet-switching replaced circuit switching Copyright © 2020, 2017, 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Circuit-Switched v s Packet-Switched ersu Networks Comparison of circuit-switched networking (a) and packet-switched networking (b). Copyright © 2020, 2017, 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Email Creation – Tomlinson at B B N wrote software to send, receive email messages – Roberts created email utility Current status – One of world’s most important communication technologies – Billions of messages sent in U.S. every day Copyright © 2020, 2017, 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Internet Kahn conceived of open architecture networking Cerf and Kahn designed TCP/IP protocol Internet: network of networks communicating using TCP/IP Copyright © 2020, 2017, 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved NSFNET Created by National Science Foundation Provided access grants to universities Encouraged commercial subscribers for regional networks Banned commercial traffic on N SFNET Backbone Private companies developed long-distance Internet connections After private networks established, N S F shut down N S F NET Backbone Copyright © 2020, 2017, 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Broadband Broadband – High-speed Internet connection – Makes feasible transfer of very large files (e.g., video) – Growth in file-swapping growth parallels growth in broadband Typical broadband speeds – South Korea (#1): 28.6 megabits/second – Norway (#2): 23.5 megabits/second – Sweden (#3): 22.5 megabits/second – United States (#10): 18.7 megabits/second Copyright © 2020, 2017, 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Wireless Networks Cell phones – Appeared in 1973, weighed 2 ½ pounds – Now weigh a few ounces and also support texting and broadband Internet access Public access wireless local area networks – Proposed in 1993 – Hotspot: wireless Internet access point – Wi-Fi most common hotspot technology Copyright © 2020, 2017, 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Cloud Computing (1 of 2) Cloud computing: utilization of remote computing resources over Internet Enablers of cloud computing – High-speed networks – High-performance, low-cost microprocessors – Virtualization: software allowing a single physical computer to emulate many virtual computing devices Advantages of cloud computing – Massive data centers have an economy of scale – Users gain flexible use of computing resources Copyright © 2020, 2017, 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Cloud Computing (2 of 2) Software as a service – Use of remote computing resources to deliver applications to user – Microsoft Office 365, for example Infrastructure as a service – Use of remove storage and computational resources on a pay-as-you-go basis – Examples: Amazon Web Services, Microsoft Azure, Google Cloud Platform, IBM Cloud Copyright © 2020, 2017, 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.4 Milestones in Information Storage and Retrieval Copyright © 2020, 2017, 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Greek Alphabet True alphabet: letters for both consonant and vowel sounds 750 B C: Greeks developed first true alphabet with 24 characters Simple, efficient way of transforming spoken words into written form Oral culture transitioned to written culture Copyright © 2020, 2017, 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Codex and Paper Codex – Rectangular pages sewn together on one side – Replaced papyrus scrolls as way of storing books – Allowed quicker access to particular passages – First produced by hand, then by wood engraving Paper – Invented by Chinese, brought to Europe in late Middle Ages – By 15th century replaced parchment for pages in less expensive codices Copyright © 2020, 2017, 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Gutenberg’s Printing Press Based on movable metal type Church principal customer of early publishers Powerful mass communication tool Printing press’s impact on Reformation – More than 300,000 copies of Luther’s publications – Protestants out-published Catholics by 10-to-1 in the middle 16th century Copyright © 2020, 2017, 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Newspapers Newspapers: Stimulated free expression Governments responded – Licensing – Censorship Impact on American Revolution – Newspapers helped unify colonies – Swayed public opinion toward independence Copyright © 2020, 2017, 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Hypertext Vannevar Bush envisioned Memex Ted Nelson – Coined word hypertext – Proposed creation of Xanadu Douglas Engelbart – Directed construction of NLS (oNLine System) – Demonstrated windows, email, mouse, videoconferencing Copyright © 2020, 2017, 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Douglas Engelbart Rehearses for “the Mother of All Demos” Douglas Engelbart rehearses for his presentation at the 1968 Fall Joint Computer Conference. It is still called “the mother of all demos.” (P VDE/Bridgeman Images) Copyright © 2020, 2017, 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Graphical User Interface (1 of 2) Xerox PARC (Palo Alto Research Center) – Alan Kay saw Doug Engelbart demo in 1968 – Alto personal computer (early 1970s) – Bit-mapped display, keyboard, and mouse Apple Computer – Steve Jobs visited Xerox PARC in 1979 – Macintosh (1984) – Bit-mapped display, keyboard, and mouse Copyright © 2020, 2017, 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Graphical User Interface (2 of 2) Microsoft Windows (1990) – Released in May 1990 – Quickly became dominant graphical user interface Copyright © 2020, 2017, 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Single-Computer Hypertext Systems Peter Brown at University of Kent – Guide (1982) – Released versions for Macintosh and IBM PC Apple Computer – HyperCard (1987) – Hypertext system based on “stacks” of “cards” – Links represented by buttons – Basis for best-selling games Myst and Riven Copyright © 2020, 2017, 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Networked Hypertext: World Wide Web First browser built at CERN in Switzerland – Tim Berners-Lee: WorldWideWeb (1990) – Berners-Lee created Web protocols – Protocols based on TCP/IP general Mosaic, first widely used browser, developed at U. Illinois Current favorites – Chrome – Firefox – Safari – Opera – UC – Internet Explorer Copyright © 2020, 2017, 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Search Engines (1 of 2) Search engine – Accepts list of keywords from user – Searches a database of documents – Returns documents most closely matching keywords Today, “search engine” usually refers to programs that search databases of Web pages Copyright © 2020, 2017, 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Search Engines (2 of 2) Google’s search engine indexes hundreds of billions of Web pages Google’s Book Search allows searches of full text of millions of books PageRank – Key to high precision of Google search engine – Measures importance, quality of web page by number and quality of pages that link to it Copyright © 2020, 2017, 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Cloud Storage Cloud storage: Storing data remotely on Internet- accessible servers Examples of cloud storage services: Dropbox, Box, Google Drive, iCloud from Apple, Amazon Drive, Mega, pCloud Simplifies accessing files from multiple devices Simplifies file sharing Provides massive data storage at a relatively low price Provides automatic backups of data Copyright © 2020, 2017, 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.5 Information Technology Issues Copyright © 2020, 2017, 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Information Technology Definition of information technology: – Devices used in creation, storage, manipulation, exchange, and dissemination of data, including text, sound, and images Examples – Tablets, smartphones, laptop computers People making greater use of IT – Costs keep falling – Capabilities keep rising Copyright © 2020, 2017, 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved IT Issues (1 of 4) Pirating copyrighted content – Digitization → perfect copies of content – Internet → fast, inexpensive distribution – Result: illegal downloading – 1st episode of season 5 of Game of Thrones illegally downloaded more than 1 million times in U.S. – Three-quarters of Chinese users of Microsoft products do not have properly licensed software Copyright © 2020, 2017, 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved IT Issues (2 of 4) Cloud storage services – Convenient to store all kinds of data, access from multiple devices, and share with others – Will data be safely stored and secure from hackers? Credit cards – Convenience over cash and checks – Increases possibility of identity theft – Who owns information about transactions? Copyright © 2020, 2017, 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved IT Issues (3 of 4) Loan applications – Based on credit history, not personal interview – Lower interest rates, but less flexibility Computers in embedded devices – When systems fail and harm humans, who should be liable? Telecommuting – Saves time, allows more flexible work hours – Do teleworkers get overlooked for promotions? Copyright © 2020, 2017, 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved IT Issues (4 of 4) Improved global communication network – Allows companies to sell to entire world – Allows companies to move jobs out of U.S. – Should IT consumers be concerned about working conditions in factories in developing countries? Social media – A conduit for democratic ideas? – Another tool for totalitarian governments? Copyright © 2020, 2017, 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Summary (1 of 2) We are living in Information Age, but information technology has a long history Today’s devices are culmination of centuries of incremental progress Social conditions give rise to new technologies Adoption of technologies can change society Computing professionals have a responsibility to be thoughtful about their role in creating the future Copyright © 2020, 2017, 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Summary (2 of 2) © Zits Partnership. King Features Syndicate Copyright © 2020, 2017, 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Copyright This work is protected by United States copyright laws and is provided solely for the use of instructors in teaching their courses and assessing student learning. Dissemination or sale of any part of this work (including on the World Wide Web) will destroy the integrity of the work and is not permitted. The work and materials from it should never be made available to students except by instructors using the accompanying text in their classes. All recipients of this work are expected to abide by these restrictions and to honor the intended pedagogical purposes and the needs of other instructors who rely on these materials. Copyright © 2020, 2017, 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved