Quantitative and Qualitative Methodology PDF

# Quantitative and Qualitative Methodology ## Introduction to Research - Research is the search for knowledge to establish **facts**. ## Why do we need to conduct research in psychology? - To analyze an area of interest. - To collect information. - To draw conclusions. - To add or expand upon pre...

# Quantitative and Qualitative Methodology ## Introduction to Research - Research is the search for knowledge to establish **facts**. ## Why do we need to conduct research in psychology? - To analyze an area of interest. - To collect information. - To draw conclusions. - To add or expand upon previously existing theories. ## What might a psychologist research? - Professionals research about a variety of topics including: - Development - Personality - Learning - Gender - Culture - Evolution etc... ## Information sheet and informed consent - Before any type of study, the researcher needs to present the participant with an information sheet. This sheet includes: - Reasons why the study is being done. - What the study involves. - Who is being invited to participate and why. - Time needed for participation e.g., time is needed to fill in a questionnaire. - Mentioning who will see the data or hear the recording. - Pointing out participant's duties e.g., saying the truth. - After the participant takes the time to read the information sheet, he/she needs to sign **the consent form**. This includes: - The rights of the participant e.g., that they can withdraw at any time with no need for an explanation. - Explaining the terms of confidentiality and anonymity . - Explaining when data and recordings will be erased. ## Quantitative Research ### Advantages - Allows to measure data. - More precise measurement. - Shows the relationship between independent and dependent variables. - Easier to analyze through statistical procedures. - Has predictive power (can generalize). ### Disadvantages - May oversimplify the complexity of human nature. - A large sample of the population must be studied. - When the research is done in a laboratory setting, it is less natural (more artificial). - This usually causes low ecological validity as it is difficult to apply results to real-world scenarios. - Individual differences are not given importance. ### Quantitative studies start with a **hypothesis**. This is a statement the research tests that reflects what the researcher expects to find. - Examples of **hypotheses**: 1. Children who are raised by homosexual parents are more likely to be homosexuals themselves. 2. The more active a user is on Facebook the lower is his/her self-esteem. 3. Cohabitating before marriage increases the chance of divorce. - After quantitative data is gathered and analyzed using different statistical procedures, these hypotheses are either accepted or refuted. ### Evaluation of Quantitative Research - A quantitative study is evaluated by considering how valid and reliable the study is: - **Validity** refers to the extent to which a test measures what it claims to measure. - **Reliability** refers to the **consistency** of a measure. A study is considered reliable if we get the same result at different times (e.g., if we give the test to participants on Friday and again on Monday) or when performed by different researchers. - The higher the validity and reliability levels, the safer it is to generalize the results of the quantitative study. ### Main data collection tools used when choosing quantitative methodology: - **Experiments:** these tools manipulate the **independent variable** so that they can see in what way it affects the **dependent variable**. Researchers control the environment so that extraneous variables are eliminated. Experiments establish a relationship between variables. - E.g., Investigating whether sugar helps children concentrate when doing homework. - **Structured Observations:** observing and noting the number of times prisoners behave aggressively during recreation. - **Structured interviews:** researching about what GCHSS students think about introducing uniforms at post-secondary level. ## Qualitative Research ### Advantages - Goes in-depth about the ways in which people feel or think. - Gains detailed and rich information. - Enables an 'insider' perspective on different social worlds. - Gives results that are more true to life as results are more representative of what would happen in the real world. - Obtains a holistic picture of the participants. - If subjectivity is acknowledged, research is as/ more valuable than a quantitative study. ### Disadvantages - Analysis is more difficult to carry out. - Does not allow generalizations and predictions as fewer people are studied. - More time consuming. - Issues of confidentiality and anonymity can be a problem when presenting results. ### In contrast to quantitative studies, qualitative research tries to understand an experience in depth rather than to test hypotheses. ### What is qualitative research? - Gathers information that is descriptive and narrative, meaning that here we are dealing with words, not numbers. - Concerned with understanding human behaviour from participants' perspectives. - Aims to describe human behaviour by focusing on the meaning people attach to their experiences. - The researcher is the only instrument needed for data collection and analysis. - There is no need to obtain a large, random, representative sample from a target population. - Participants are often chosen because of their experiences in a particular area. - Research is not intended for generalization. ### Main data collection tools used when choosing qualitative methodology: - **Unstructured/semi-structured interviews:** looking into the lived experience of Maltese prisoners’ wives. - **Unstructured/semi-structured observations:** observing illegal immigrants being saved at sea. - **Case studies:** (intensive descriptions of a single individual or case). Studying Clive Wearing's life, involving a famous pianist who suffers from a very strange case of amnesia. ## Comparison of Qualitative and Quantitative Research | Criterion | Methodology | Definition | |---|---|---| | Internal Validity | Quantitative | When a study shows that results were caused by the manipulation of variables, rather than by the effect of something else. | | Credibility | Qualitative | How believable are the researcher's conclusions? | | External validity | Quantitative | When the findings of a study, obtained from a representative sample, generalize to other populations, other settings and other times. Ecological validity is a specific type of external validity. This refers to the extent to which the findings of a research study are able to be generalized to real-life settings. | | Transferability | Qualitative | The extent to which the research context is similar to another specific situation. | | Reliability | Quantitative | The extent to which results are reproducible (consistent). | | Dependability | Qualitative | In qualitative studies, we do not expect data to be the same every time. But we expect the researcher to describe all the factors in the research context that might have influenced the data obtained. | | Objectivity | Quantitative | The extent to which biases were eliminated from interfering in the study. | | Confirmability | Qualitative | Subjectivity is not avoided but valued. Researchers are expected to note the procedures used during the research so that other researchers can use the same techniques to try and contradict the results for it to be confirmed. | ## How can quantitative and qualitative methodologies work together? ### Triangulation: - This is done by using different approaches to obtain data in the same study, with the aim of improving the trustworthiness of the conclusions of the researcher. - There are 4 types of triangulation: 1. **Data triangulation:** Using data from different sources or at different times. - Example: Using data collected from different sources, such as handing out questionnaires to students from 2 different schools or at a single school at different times. 2. **Researcher triangulation:** Different researchers to increase credibility. - Example: Having two researchers observe an aggressive child interact with his classmates. 3. **Theoretical triangulation:** The use of *multiple perspectives* to interpret the results of a study. - Example: Explaining the behaviour of a middle-aged man, using both Erikson's psychosocial theory of development and Levinson's theory about mid-life transition. 4. **Methodological triangulation:** Using both quantitative and qualitative methodologies. - Example: Giving questionnaires to PSD teachers to learn about how they prepare female students for menarche and at the same time interviewing a small number of students about whether they were well prepared for this life event. ## Summary: Quantitative vs Qualitative methodologies | | Quantitative | Qualitative | |---|---|---| | Focus | Large quantity of data | Good quality of data | | Aim | Quantifying behaviour. Generalising results. Confirming/ rejecting hypotheses. | Understanding in depth the meaning of an experience | | Number of participants | Large amount | Few individuals chosen | | Sampling methods | Random. Stratified. | Snowball. Purposive. | | Data collection tools | Structured interviews. Structured observations. Experiments. | Semi-structured or unstructured interviews. Unstructured observations. | | Data gathered | Numerical data | Descriptive data | | Researcher's position | Objective | Subjectivity (reflexivity) | | Data analysis | Statistical methods | Thematic content analysis | | Generalizability | Yes | No | ## How can we judge the value of quantitative and qualitative research? - It is important to note that while in quantitative studies, we judge the value of the research using certain criteria such as **reliability and validity**, in a qualitative study other criteria apply. - In qualitative studies, evaluation centers on whether the study is **detailed**, whether results are **authentic** (genuine) and whether data gathered is **meaningful** and useful to the audience.