Field Methods in Psychology PDF

Field Methods in Psychology Althea Marie L. Nicolas | Term 1 | AY 2024-2025 BSMA Psychology and Counseling III-13 ○ Researchers must ensure participant INTRODUCTION TO QUALITATIVE...

Field Methods in Psychology Althea Marie L. Nicolas | Term 1 | AY 2024-2025 BSMA Psychology and Counseling III-13 ○ Researchers must ensure participant INTRODUCTION TO QUALITATIVE confidentiality and secure data, requiring ethics approval prior to research. RESEARCH IN PSYCHOLOGY ★ Emergence and Importance Historical Context and Dominant Theories ○ Qualitative methods gained prominence in psychology from the 1980s, emphasizing ★ Quantitative Tradition descriptive, interpretive data over hypothesis ○ Rooted in early psychological practices inspired by testing. physics, emphasizing quantification and ★ Defining Features measurable outcomes. ○ Rich Descriptions ★ Positivism and Behaviorism Focuses on in-depth, descriptive data. ○ Positivism (Comte) promoted empirical, ○ Individual Perspectives observable data. Highlights personal, subjective experiences. ○ Behaviorism, influenced by logical positivism, ○ Rejection of Positivism focused on external behaviors rather than internal Questions objective reality, embracing multiple thoughts. truths. ○ Behaviorists like Watson and Skinner applied ○ Postmodern Sensibility principles of observable measurement to Emphasizes close connections with psychology. participants and real-life experiences. ★ Shift to Cognitive Psychology ○ Everyday Context ○ Emerged in the 1960s as behaviorism declined, Accounts for participants' daily lives and emphasizing internal processes and cognition. contexts. Core Approaches in Qualitative Research Purpose of Qualitative Research ★ Social Constructionism ★ Helps access participants' thoughts and feelings, ○ Interactional providing insights into their experiences. Reality is shaped through everyday social interactions, language, and discourse. ○ Societal Difference from Quantitative Research Focus on larger social structures and power dynamics, influenced by thinkers like ★ Qualitative research focuses on understanding how and Foucault. why behaviors occur, while quantitative research ★ Realism vs. Relativism determines how many engage in specific behaviors. ○ Quantitative psychology often assumes a single reality, while qualitative research embraces Methodologies multiple, socially constructed realities. ★ Agency vs. Determinism ★ Ethnography, grounded theory, and phenomenology are ○ Qualitative researchers view individuals as active commonly used. agents, while quantitative approaches often see behavior as determined by external factors. Participant’s Viewpoint Historical Methods in Psychology ★ Focus of Qualitative Study ○ Aims to convey participants' thoughts and feelings ★ Introspectionism that affect behaviors, particularly related to ○ Early approach involving self-observation, later medication use. replaced by behaviorism. ★ Non-generalizability ★ Phenomenology ○ Findings are not intended to generalize to a ○ Different from introspection, it examines broader population but to gain insights that may experiences as they appear without introspective inform further studies. bias. ★ Mixed Methods ★ Behaviorist Methodology ○ Qualitative research can be combined with ○ Empirical, lab-based, focused on observable quantitative methods within the same study. stimulus-response behaviors. ★ Introduction of Statistical Methods ○ Statistical analysis became integral to psychology Role of the Researcher by the mid-20th century, particularly for hypothesis testing and variance analysis. ★ Accessing Participant Perspectives ○ Involves discussing personal topics, which can be sensitive or challenging. Qualitative Research's Place in Modern ★ Safeguarding Participants Psychology 1 Field Methods in Psychology Althea Marie L. Nicolas | Term 1 | AY 2024-2025 BSMA Psychology and Counseling III-13 ★ Resistance to Positivism ★ Complement recordings by capturing impressions, ○ Many qualitative researchers reject the quantitative contexts, behaviors, and nonverbal cues. bias, advocating for idiographic ★ Should be secured due to sensitivity of information. (individual-focused) over nomothetic (generalized) approaches. Field Notes ★ Integration of Both Paradigms ○ Some psychologists argue that combining qualitative and quantitative methods provides a ★ Handwritten notes, audio, and video recordings can be richer understanding. used; recordings must be transcribed verbatim. ★ Transcription Time ○ Approx. 8 hours to transcribe a 45-minute DATA COLLECTION TECHNIQUES IN interview yields 20-30 pages of text. QUALITATIVE RESEARCH In-Depth Interviews ★ Qualitative research focuses on understanding issues from participants' perspectives. ★ Purpose ★ Purpose ○ Explores human behavior, beliefs, norms, and ○ Provides personal perspectives and insights, social contexts. useful for sensitive topics. ★ Methods ★ Process ○ Key methods include participant observation, ○ Preparation in-depth interviews, and focus groups. Researcher learns about the topic and drafts ★ Data Types questions. ○ Primarily field notes, audio, and transcripts. ○ Interview Conduct ★ Comparing with Quantitative Research Pose questions neutrally, encourage ○ Qualitative is flexible with open-ended questions elaboration without bias, and follow ethical and contextual understanding. protocols. ○ Quantitative uses structured methods and ★ Ethical Guidelines closed-ended questions for statistical analysis. ○ Obtain informed consent, respect participant’s ★ Involves producing large amounts of data through privacy, and avoid coercion. interviews and focus groups. Focus Groups Participant Observation ★ Purpose ★ To gain insights by observing people in their natural ○ Gather group norms, attitudes, and cultural settings. perspectives. ★ Advantages ★ Structure ○ Observes genuine behavior, develops cultural ○ Small groups, typically led by a facilitator, discuss familiarity, and provides context for research. specific topics. ○ Helps refine research methods like interviews and ★ Benefits focus groups. ○ Effective in generating discussions on shared ★ Challenges experiences. ○ Time-consuming and relies heavily on the ★ Challenges researcher's memory and objectivity. ○ Dominant participants can skew the data; it ★ Data Forms requires careful moderation. ○ Field notes, sometimes accompanied by sketches, maps, or charts. Sampling and Recruitment in Qualitative ★ Ethical Guidelines Research ○ Respect privacy, avoid disruptions, maintain confidentiality, and gain community trust. ★ Sampling Types ★ Logistics ○ Purposive Sampling ○ Select site, time, and frequency based on the Select participants based on specific criteria. study’s objectives. ○ Quota Sampling ○ Take brief notes, then expand soon after the Predetermined quotas for characteristics. session to preserve details. ○ Snowball Sampling Participants refer to others. Data Generation ★ Recruitment ○ Involves identifying eligible participants through ★ Involves producing large amounts of data through community leaders or gatekeepers, ensuring interviews and focus groups. ethical guidelines. Recording Methods Ethical Considerations in Qualitative Research 2 Field Methods in Psychology Althea Marie L. Nicolas | Term 1 | AY 2024-2025 BSMA Psychology and Counseling III-13 ★ Core Principles ○ Critical stance toward knowledge; considers ○ Respect for Persons historical and cultural influences. Ensuring autonomy and protection. ○ Phenomenological methods focus on rich ○ Beneficence descriptions of experiences using language. Minimizing harm and maximizing benefits. ○ Each method's emphasis varies based on the ○ Justice specific strand of phenomenological philosophy Fair distribution of risks and benefits. informing it (Langdridge, 2007). ★ Informed Consent ★ Development in Qualitative Methods ○ Ensures participants understand the study's ○ Shift from pure description to recognition of the purpose, risks, and voluntary nature. influence of interpretation and context. ○ Can be oral or written, depending on the risk level ○ Recognition that "thick descriptions" are shaped by and ethical requirements. cultural, social, and interpersonal factors (Lincoln & Guba, 1985). Documentation and Data Management ★ Research Approach ○ Aims to illustrate different phenomenological approaches using examples from research on ★ Field Notes psychological interventions in general practice. ○ Detailed records of observations, interactions, and ○ Discusses the evolution of analytic methods from reflections. pure descriptions to interpretative approaches. ★ Data Security ○ Introduces themes like mentalization and time, ○ Use secure storage for field notes and digital files, rooted in phenomenological thought. ensuring confidentiality. Husserls Phenomenological Approaches in Psychology and Health Sciences ★ Epistemological Focus ○ Husserl's project aimed to study consciousness ★ Abstract Overview and how human experience constitutes ○ Phenomenological philosophy informs a variety of phenomena in the world. qualitative methods. ○ Believed it's impossible to separate the ○ Methods analyze material using phenomenological experiencing subject from the world experienced concepts for deeper theoretical insights. (Zahavi 2003). ○ Approaches range from pure description to those ★ Key Concepts incorporating interpretation. ○ Intentionality ★ Development of Phenomenological Philosophy Consciousness is always directed toward ○ Originated from a focus on thorough descriptions. something; we cannot think or feel without a ○ Evolved to recognize the role of interpretation and subject of thought or feeling (Zahavi). the researcher’s influence. ○ Phenomenological Reduction and Epoché ○ Emphasizes co-construction of narratives. Epoché ★ Qualitative Analytic Methods Suspension of the natural attitude, ○ Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (IPA) withholding preconceived beliefs Combines description with interpretation. (Zahavi 2003). ○ Critical Narrative Analysis (CNA) Reduction Integrates phenomenological theory with Examining the correlation between critical perspectives. subjectivity and the world. ★ Case Study Horizontalization ○ Research example: Psychological interventions Treating all phenomena equally without and understanding in general practice. prioritizing them (Langdridge 2007). ○ Demonstrates the shift from descriptive to Eidetic Variation interpretive approaches in analysis. Imagining objects as different to understand them better (Zahavi 2003). Phenomenological Philosophy ★ Methodological Insights ○ Husserl’s methods influenced qualitative research, ★ Qualitative Methods in Health Sciences advocating a critical, open attitude toward ○ Growing acceptance in health sciences, but still phenomena. not seen as equal to quantitative methods ○ Phenomenology should ground knowledge in (Malterud, 2005). experience, not preconceived theories (Husserl ○ Qualitative research relies on conceptual logic, 1983). unlike the population-level logic of quantitative ★ Controversies and Developments research (Patton, 2002). ○ Debate on whether phenomenology should solely ○ Philosophical underpinnings, often humanistic, are focus on descriptions or include interpretation. increasingly made explicit (Langdridge, 2007; ○ Critique by Interactionists Smith, Flowers & Larkin, 2009). Accused of being too essentialist, claiming a ★ Philosophical and Methodological Background pure description could reveal essences without interpretation (Järvinen & Mik-Meyer 2005). 3 Field Methods in Psychology Althea Marie L. Nicolas | Term 1 | AY 2024-2025 BSMA Psychology and Counseling III-13 ○ Followers like Heidegger, Gadamer, and Ricoeur ○ Heidegger shifted phenomenology toward a argued interpretation is inevitable in understanding dynamic, interpretive approach. phenomena. ○ Interpretation seen as integral to understanding ★ Husserl vs. Successors existence, influenced by time, culture, and context. ○ Husserl believed in achieving a "transcendental I" through reduction for a deeper understanding. Gadamer ○ Successors like Heidegger and Merleau-Ponty argued that complete bracketing of preconceptions is impossible due to the embodied nature of being. ★ Adoption of Heidegger’s Ideas ○ Agreed with Heidegger that phenomenology is inherently hermeneutic (Moran & Mooney 2002). Heidegger ○ Emphasized the “linguisticality” of human experience—language as central to understanding ★ Focus on Understanding Existence (Moran & Mooney 2002). ○ Introduced existential turn; aimed to understand ★ Understanding as Interpretation existence (Stolorow 2006). ○ Understanding is always interpretation; influenced ○ Analyzed the concept of "Being" (Sein) through the by historical and cultural prejudices (Gadamer lens of "Dasein" (Being-there). 1989). ○ Dasein ○ Introduced the concept of the “hermeneutic Not just human existence but how humans situation”—prejudices shape our openness to the understand and experience being (Large world (Gadamer, 1989). 2008). ★ Influence of History and Tradition ★ Key Concepts ○ Past has a pervasive power in understanding; ○ Dasein traditions and prejudices define our interpretive A structure that enables understanding of horizons (Linge 1977). Being; involves interpretation (Heidegger ○ We belong to history; interpretations are limited by 1962). our historical context (Gadamer 1989). ○ Understanding and Interpretation ★ Hermeneutic Horizon Understanding is inherent in existence; ○ Interpretation is shaped by the interpreter’s own interpretation further develops understanding horizon; understanding is both conditioned and (Heidegger 1962, p. 188-189). limited by historical and linguistic context ○ Temporality and "Care" (Sorge) (Gadamer 1989). Dasein's existence unfolds in time (past, ○ Our understanding is a reflection of our existence; present, future), emphasizing care as an we are our understanding (Gadamer, 1989). ontological structure (Spiegelberg 1978). ★ Language and Dialogue ○ Thrownness ○ Language is fundamental for understanding; Our existence is always situated within a interpretation requires an appropriate language pre-existing world of people, objects, and (Gadamer 1989). culture (Heidegger 1962). ○ Emphasized the dialogical nature of understanding ★ Phenomenology as Hermeneutics through the “fusion of horizons”—merging different ○ Emphasizes interpretation over pure description; perspectives to reach understanding (Gadamer all descriptions inherently involve interpretation 1989). (Heidegger 1962). ★ Critical View of Methodology ○ Phenomenology involves a cyclical process from ○ Critiqued fixation on specific methods; phenomena to forestructures (pre-existing understanding precedes systematic investigation concepts) (Heidegger 1962). (Gadamer 1983). ★ Bracketing and Reflexivity ○ Focused on the practical life and the commitment ○ Traditional "bracketing" is re-evaluated; requires involved in understanding (Gadamer 1989). reflexivity to reveal preconceptions (Smith et al. ★ Universality of Hermeneutics 2009). ○ Philosophical hermeneutics applies universally; all ○ Involves ongoing, repeated bracketing processes sciences are historical and interpretive (Gadamer to balance attention between phenomena 1989). (Gubrium & Holstein 1997). ★ Language and Interpretation Ricoeur ○ Heidegger links language with understanding; anticipates narrative approaches (Ricoeur 1980). ○ Language is a tool for uncovering hidden or latent ★ Philosophical Background meanings (Smith et al. 2009). ○ Influenced by Husserl and Jaspers; combined ★ Forestructures and Foreunderstanding phenomenological description with hermeneutic ○ Forestructures shape interpretation; revealed interpretation (Ricoeur 1970). through engagement with phenomena (Heidegger ○ Asserted that hermeneutics is essential for 1962). phenomenology, integrating a critique of ideology ○ Understanding is always influenced by prior into understanding (Moran & Mooney 2002). knowledge, experiences, and context. ★ Critique of Husserlian Phenomenology ★ Impact on Phenomenology 4 Field Methods in Psychology Althea Marie L. Nicolas | Term 1 | AY 2024-2025 BSMA Psychology and Counseling III-13 ○ Rejected Husserl's idea of phenomenology as a ○ Developmental Psychology universal method; developed a dialectic of Looks at storytelling origins and life-story methods and reflective philosophy. formation. ○ Believed self-knowledge could not be obtained ○ Personality Psychology directly; proposed an indirect reflective approach Connects life stories to personality traits and through symbols and interpretation (Ihde 1971). psychological well-being. ★ Interpretation and Language ○ Social and Cultural Psychology ○ Proposed two forms of interpretation: Examines narratives in specific social and Recollection of Meanings cultural contexts. Retrieving hidden meanings. ○ Clinical Psychology School of Suspicion Uses life stories to study psychotherapy Revealing the “illusions and lies of transformations. consciousness” (e.g., psychoanalysis) (Ricoeur 1970). Narrative Analysis Types ★ Discourse vs. Language ○ Discourse Spoken language, giving meaning through ★ Context of Discovery sentences, existing in time and directed at ○ Researchers explore themes, patterns, and others. individual stories inductively to form theories. ○ Language ★ Context of Justification A system of signs, existing outside time ○ Hypotheses derived from narrative research are (Ricoeur 1981). tested for broader application using structured ★ Text as a Medium coding and statistical methods. ○ Human actions understood as texts; interpretation involves searching for hidden meanings through Examples of Life-Narrative Research symbols and myths (Ricoeur 1980). ○ Appropriation Interpreting meaning involves an Creative Academics' Life Narratives approximation due to the fading of the author's original intention in written discourse ★ Objective (Ricoeur 1981). ○ To understand how academics narrate their ★ Concept of Play scholarly and personal lives. ○ Borrowed from Gadamer; suggests indirect ★ Method approaches to understanding (art, dreams) that ○ Participants describe key life scenes (e.g., turning may not be conscious (Ricoeur 1981). points, high points) and link between professional ○ Emphasizes that interpretation is influenced by and personal narratives. one's ideological position, whether aware of it or ★ Themes Found not. ○ Many had early "crystallizing experiences" that ★ Narrative Theory shaped lifelong pursuits. ○ Focused on the role of narratives in understanding human existence as temporal (Ricoeur 1980, Generativity in Midlife Adults 1984). ○ Narratives link human actions and events into coherent wholes, making sense of lived ★ Focus experience (Polkinghorne 1988). ○ Highly generative adults’ life stories often feature ○ Narrative identities are formed through stories, "redemption sequences" (negative to positive situating experiences in time (Kemp 1996; Ricoeur transformations). 1980). ★ Themes Identified ★ Impact on Qualitative Research ○ Redemption themes correlate with greater ○ Inspired narrative analytic approaches in generativity, well-being, and prosocial goals. qualitative research and the development of ★ Method phenomenologically inspired narrative methods ○ Coding themes quantitatively to assess differences (Hoshmand 2005; Mattingly 1998; Langdridge between high and low generativity groups. 2007). Political Ideology and Life Narratives LIFE NARRATIVES APPROACH IN PSYCHOLOGY ★ Focus ○ Examines how political ideologies shape personal narratives, with conservatives often emphasizing ★ Analyzes how people create and internalize stories to self-control and liberals focusing on understand their lives, focusing on the content, self-exploration. structure, and meaning of these narratives. ★ Findings ★ Uses Across Psychology ○ Conservatives frame life in terms of control and ○ Cognitive Psychology prevention, while liberals focus on growth and Explores autobiographical memory and promotion. identity development. 5 Field Methods in Psychology Althea Marie L. Nicolas | Term 1 | AY 2024-2025 BSMA Psychology and Counseling III-13 ○ Participant Observation The Redemptive Self Model Researcher fully engages in group activities but is only a part of ethnographic methods. ○ Case Study and Fieldwork ★ Components These may study individuals but do not ○ Consists of five themes, including: necessarily require cultural immersion. Special advantages, early experiences of witnessing suffering, development of moral steadfastness, redemption sequences, and a Ethnographic Methodology legacy-focused outlook. ★ American adults with redemptive life narratives often ★ Active Observation: demonstrate greater generativity and resilience. ○ Researchers record sensory perceptions and personal experiences to gain authentic insights. Using Life Narratives to Test Existing ○ Encourages stepping back from rigid data collection to "live" the community’s reality. Theories ★ Role of the Researcher: ○ Can take on an insider’s perspective, participating ★ Political Psychology in rituals, while maintaining an outsider's analytical ○ Studies narrative themes among conservatives distance. and liberals to test theories on how ideology ○ Must balance personal beliefs with cultural shapes the self. immersion to avoid bias. ★ Notable Example ○ Analysis of George W. Bush’s life narrative, linking personal redemption to his political ideology and decisions. Challenges in Ethnography ★ Cultural Engagement: ETHNOGRAPHY IN PSYCHOLOGICAL ○ Building trust and understanding social norms is RESEARCH critical for genuine data. ○ Reflective practice is necessary to reduce ★ Ethnography explores group behavior, values, and researcher bias and maintain authenticity. mental states within their cultural context. ★ Philosophical Approaches: ★ Originated in anthropology; helps psychologists ○ Empiricism understand group behavior in a natural setting. Gathers knowledge through direct, immersive ★ Aims to provide holistic insights into cultural and social experiences. dimensions of human behavior. ○ Social Constructivism Recognizes that truth is culturally constructed Historical Background and subjective. ○ Humanistic Approach Emphasizes understanding reality from the ★ Origins: participant's perspective and respects ○ British Influence: Used in colonial territories to participant autonomy. study indigenous cultures. ○ American Influence: Observed marginalized groups in urban settings (e.g., immigrants, gangs). Ethnography’s Relevance in Psychology ★ Influence of Wilhelm Wundt: ○ Advocated for the study of cultural factors in ★ Application Examples: psychological phenomena. ○ Used in Western studies for organizational ○ Volkerpsychologie behavior and family dynamics. Early work linked culture and introspective ○ In Indonesia, ethnography helps study social methods but differed from ethnography's issues like urban poverty and online communities. natural setting focus. ★ Interpretive Nature: ○ Ethnographic findings are interpretative, highlighting individual and group perspectives over Ethnography in Qualitative Research objective truths. ★ Natural Context Ethnography as a Constructive Tool ○ Conducted in the participants' real-life environment. ★ Researcher’s Position: ★ Researcher's Role ○ Self-reflection helps researchers monitor how ○ Direct involvement and rapport-building with personal biases may influence interpretations. participants. ○ Interactionism supports equal standing between ★ Data Collection researcher and participants, promoting an ○ Involves observation, interviews, and analysis of empathetic understanding. artifacts (e.g., documents, language). ★ Distinctions from Related Methods: 6 Field Methods in Psychology Althea Marie L. Nicolas | Term 1 | AY 2024-2025 BSMA Psychology and Counseling III-13 Types of Ethnography Design ★ Uses multiple methods to explore organizational culture through direct participation and artifact analysis (e.g., Life History studying restaurant work culture). ★ Focuses on participants’ life experiences and contexts Understanding Ethnography in Psychological that shaped them. Research ★ Uses a key figure who represents the community’s culture (e.g., study of a Polish immigrant’s life in the U.S.). ★ Applications: ○ Community Connection Builds rapport and dialogue with participants Memoir to align research objectives with community values. ★ Documents the researcher’s experiences and ○ Natural Context reflections within a community. Emphasizes study in real-life settings, free ★ Provides an objective account through personal from researcher control, to capture engagement (e.g., study on Songhay sorcerers in participants’ genuine experiences. Nigeria). ○ Addressing Quantitative Limitations Ethnography delves into complex cultural meanings that quantitative methods may not reveal. Narrative Ethnography ★ Participants write their own experiences with cultural Considerations for Ethnography in insights, aided by the researcher’s feedback to enhance Psychology clarity. ★ Example: A Jewish immigrant’s reflections on societal life as a tailor in California. Pilot Studies ★ Ideal for early-stage research or assessing community Auto-Ethnography interventions. ★ Example: Ethnography used to understand the lives of ★ Researchers document their personal journey within a urban and rural communities in Indonesia. culture, offering introspective insights (e.g., exploration of personal identity in a military unit). Community and Cultural Contexts Fiction ★ Suitable for studying group behaviors shaped by cultural values (e.g., Inuit tribe’s mental health and ★ Ethnographic narratives written as stories, poems, or family dynamics). performances that reflect participants’ perspectives ★ Explores how culture influences subjective meanings (e.g., poetry on personal loss in academia). and social norms. Applied Ethnography Organizational Research ★ Helps to understand culture within workplaces, often ★ Used for studies focused on social change or assessing with multi-site data collection (e.g., reinsurance brokers’ community programs (e.g., feeding practices in young roles in a global firm). children for NGO interventions). Challenges in Ethnography for Psychological Ethnographic Decision Model Studies ★ Investigates factors behind community decision-making processes (e.g., healthcare choices in rural farming Researcher Representation communities). ★ Risk of researcher’s limited perspective influencing Institutional Ethnography findings, especially if based on select participants. ★ Requires self-awareness to balance personal biases. ★ Analyzes daily life within institutional systems to understand interactions with rules and policies (e.g., Subjectivity vs. Theoretical Frameworks single parent navigating a school system). Organizational Ethnography 7 Field Methods in Psychology Althea Marie L. Nicolas | Term 1 | AY 2024-2025 BSMA Psychology and Counseling III-13 ★ Ethnographic focus on subjective, cultural insights may ★ Ethnography offers a unique opportunity in challenge psychology’s traditional, theory-based psychological research by revealing cultural and social approaches. meanings within natural contexts. Researcher Objectivity Challenges and Solutions ★ Ethnography’s first-person narrative style contrasts with ★ While subjectivity and social constructivism can psychology’s typical third-person reporting, complicating influence findings, continuous reflection and creative objective presentation. data collection methods help maintain authenticity. Time and Resource Demands Holistic Approach ★ Ethnography requires long-term immersion (6 months to ★ Ethnography’s strength lies in capturing behaviors a year), posing challenges for time-sensitive studies. within their natural setting, providing a comprehensive view of cultural influences on behavior. Single vs. Multi-Site Observations PARTICIPATORY RESEARCH (PR) ★ Classic ethnography often focuses on a single site, but modern studies may need observations across multiple ★ PR encompasses research designs and methods that locations, especially in organizational settings. involve collaboration with those affected by the studied issue to drive action or change. ★ Emphasizes collaboration between researchers and Suggestions for Applying Ethnography in community members who represent the interests of the Psychological Studies research focus. ★ Core ObjectivE Continuous Reflection ○ To create research that is relevant, impactful, and translatable to community and real-world contexts. ★ Both researchers and participants should engage in ongoing reflection to ensure findings accurately reflect Key Aspects of Participatory Research the community’s culture. ★ Researchers can facilitate participant reflection by ★ Direct Engagement asking questions that help create a holistic view of the ○ Prioritizes co-creation of research with community community. stakeholders, integrating their real-world knowledge. Multiple Data Collection Methods PR reframes participants as co-researchers or stakeholders, not merely “subjects.” ○ Aims to enhance the social and ecological ★ Combine participant observation with interviews, well-being of communities and environments. archival research, questionnaires, and online ★ Benefits of PR interactions for a well-rounded view. ○ Produces research aligned with community needs, ★ Flexibility in choosing methods enhances the accuracy improving relevance and application. of cultural descriptions. ○ Fosters trust, active participation, and ownership among community members, enhancing research Choosing the Appropriate Ethnography quality and relevance. Design Frameworks and Approaches in Participatory ★ Select a design that aligns with the study’s goals and Research time constraints. ★ Some ethnographic studies require extended ★ Diverse Terminology Across Disciplines engagement, while others can use more time-efficient ○ PR includes various frameworks like Action designs. Research, Appreciative Inquiry, and Community-Based Participatory Research. Safety and Ethical Considerations ○ Despite different terms, all PR approaches prioritize collaboration with participants to effect ★ Develop strategies for safe entry and exit from research positive change beyond knowledge generation. sites and maintain communication with colleagues. ★ Engagement Spectrum ★ Prioritize participant safety and adhere strictly to ○ PR engagement can range from providing research ethics to protect all parties involved. information (minimal involvement) to empowering communities to make decisions (full engagement). ○ Examples: Ethnography’s Potential ○ National Institutes of Health 8 Field Methods in Psychology Althea Marie L. Nicolas | Term 1 | AY 2024-2025 BSMA Psychology and Counseling III-13 Describes a continuum from outreach to ★ Levels of Participation shared leadership with the community. ○ Inform ○ Spectrum of Public Participation Basic information-sharing with stakeholders. Ranges from informing to empowering the ○ Consult public in research processes. Stakeholders provide feedback that informs research decisions. Research Methods in PR ○ Involve Community members contribute feedback across research stages. ★ Broad Definition of Methods ○ Collaborate ○ PR methods are not limited to data collection but Shared decision-making, co-leadership, and include partnership-building, co-design, data equal involvement in the process. interpretation, and action. ○ Empower ○ Tools Community members fully lead decisions Methods may be verbal, visual, written, throughout the research process. observational, or even arts-based to support ★ Impact on Social Change diverse, meaningful participation. ○ Higher stakeholder involvement correlates with a ○ Tasks stronger potential for sustainable impact and social Techniques are adapted to foster mutual change. learning, shared decision-making, and collective interpretation at each stage of the research. Traditional vs. Adapted PR Methods ★ Use Across Research Stages ○ Methods are applied from partnership formation to ★ Conventional Methods in PR research question development, data analysis, ○ Traditional tools like surveys and focus groups are dissemination, and implementing change. not excluded but can be modified for PR purposes (e.g., co-designed, co-facilitated focus groups). Participatory Research (PR) Overview ○ Examples: Surveys co-developed and administered with community members (e.g., Goodman et al., ★ Definition 2014). ○ PR is a collaborative research model focused on Collaborative qualitative interviews with working directly with those affected by the community co-researchers. research topic to inspire action and change. ★ Defining Feature ★ Core Principle ○ Stakeholders have decision-making power in tool ○ Values genuine participation and respects the selection and implementation, making any method voices, experiences, and insights of all participatory if co-designed. stakeholders, ensuring their input is meaningful. ★ Goal ○ To integrate research with community Dual Goals of PR engagement, making findings relevant and applicable to real-world settings. ★ Knowledge Production ○ Generates insightful, community-informed data. PR Methods and Choice Points ★ Real-World Action ○ Aims for applicable results in community settings. ★ Research Steps with "Choice Points" ○ Choice points are critical decision moments in the Importance of Documentation research cycle where researchers decide on methods and tools that offer the desired level of ★ Detailed accounts of PR methods, tools, and participation. processes, along with implementation challenges, ★ Key Steps enhance PR practice and impact. ○ Identify Stakeholder Needs ★ Encourages transparency to inspire and guide future Determine what the community and participatory research projects. stakeholders seek to gain. ○ Research Needs Assessment QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS TECHNIQUE Establish research goals, outcomes, or impacts to guide method choices. ★ Collaboration Example True Representation of Participants ○ Environmental justice projects might use citizen science for data collection while researchers ★ Analysis must accurately reflect participants' voices and handle specialized analysis to optimize resources experiences. and skills. ★ Flexible Participation Levels ○ Participation can range from minimal (informing) to Theoretical Standpoints fully empowered community-led decision-making. 9 Field Methods in Psychology Althea Marie L. Nicolas | Term 1 | AY 2024-2025 BSMA Psychology and Counseling III-13 ★ Interpretation depends on the researcher's theoretical framework (e.g., social constructivism, feminist Coding standpoint theory). ★ Identifying Themes Awareness of Biases ○ Coding helps identify topics and issues within narratives, requiring attention to both verbal and ★ Researchers should acknowledge their perspectives nonverbal cues. and biases to avoid misinterpreting participant ★ Tools for Coding narratives. ○ Researchers may use qualitative software (e.g., NVivo) for efficiency, alongside field notes from Phenomenological Approach interviews. ★ Credibility and Trustworthiness ○ Establishing trustworthiness involves ensuring ★ Focus on understanding the participant's experience; findings are credible, transferable, dependable, researchers should reflect on their own experiences and confirmable. and biases to provide context for their analysis. Theming Importance of Reflexivity ★ Organizing Findings ★ Researchers should articulate their biases and ○ Theming aggregates codes into coherent perspectives to enhance the clarity and coherence of narratives, supported by participant quotations, the research findings. which reflects their lived experiences. ★ Presentation of Data Contextualizing Work ○ Themes can guide report sections, emphasizing implications for practice and ensuring direct ★ By stating filters and biases, researchers help readers participant quotations underlie the conclusions. understand the nuances of the study, contributing to the research's credibility. Data Synthesis Transcribing and Checking ★ Representing Findings ○ The synthesis is critical for conveying participants' ★ Audio Recording stories meaningfully, supported by direct ○ Interviews and focus groups should be quotations to ensure authenticity. audio-recorded for accurate data collection. ★ Report Structure ★ Transcription Process ○ Reports typically include an introduction, ○ Transcribing is labor-intensive but crucial for methodology, findings, and implications, analysis; novice researchers are encouraged to presenting qualitative data as narratives. transcribe at least one session. ★ Professional Assistance Understanding Thematic Analysis (TA) ○ Hiring a professional transcriber is recommended when funds allow. It's beneficial to brief them on ★ TA is a qualitative research method used to identify, the research context. analyze, and report themes within data. ★ Transcription Software ★ It serves to provide insight into participants' experiences ○ Tools like ELAN can assist in organizing and and meanings. managing data but require training. ★ Core Objective ★ Verbatim Transcription ○ To develop an understanding of how different ○ All audio must be transcribed verbatim, including interpretations arise within qualitative research, number lines, corrections, anonymization, and emphasizing the importance of methodological contextual notes. clarity. ★ Focus Groups ○ Transcribing focus groups involves tagging voices and making notes on dynamics to enhance data Key Aspects of Thematic Analysis interpretation. ★ Diversity of Approaches Reading between the Lines ○ TA is a family of methods, not a single entity, and researchers must clarify which approach they are using. ★ Understanding Narratives ○ Includes both reflexive and coding reliability ○ Researchers should listen for unspoken elements, approaches. such as pauses, which may indicate difficulty. ★ Typology of TA ★ Phenomenological Analysis ○ Differentiate between types of TA: coding reliability, ○ Interpretative phenomenological analysis aims to codebook-based TA, and thematic coding. grasp participants' meanings, with an emphasis on the researcher’s interpretation of experiences. 10 Field Methods in Psychology Althea Marie L. Nicolas | Term 1 | AY 2024-2025 BSMA Psychology and Counseling III-13 ○ Each type reflects distinct research values and ○ While member checking can enhance ethical methodological coherence. considerations, it is fraught with assumptions about accessing participants' truths. Small q vs. Big Q Qualitative Research ★ Alternative to Member Checking ○ Member reflections provide an alternative to member checking, encouraging participants to ★ Small q Qualitative Research engage with and reflect on analyses to enrich ○ Focuses on objectivity, reliability, and understanding rather than verify truths. generalizability, often aligned with positivist paradigms. ★ Big Q Qualitative Research Recommendations for Methodologically ○ Emphasizes subjectivity and interpretive practices, Coherent Thematic Analysis aligning with non-positivist paradigms. ○ Researchers must be mindful of methodological coherence when combining different paradigms. Recognize Plurality ★ Identify the location of your TA approach on the small q Conceptualization of Themes (descriptive) to Big Q (interpretive) spectrum. ★ Themes can be understood as either: ○ Topic Summaries Clarify Research Values Broad, surface-level topics shared among data. ★ Establish and articulate your philosophical assumptions ○ Meaning-Centered Interpretations and theoretical grounding for TA. Deeper narratives that convey significant insights. Ensure Analytic Practice Coherence ★ Importance of Meaning ○ Capturing core ideas and meanings is essential for ★ Align all methodological procedures with your research providing rich, interpretive data. values and chosen TA approach. Methodological Clarity Justify Methodological Divergences ★ Researchers are encouraged to articulate their choices ★ Provide clear rationale for any deviations from and rationale regarding the type of TA employed. established practices. ★ This clarity enhances the overall quality and credibility of the research. Link Personal Reflexivity Reflexivity in Thematic Analysis ★ Connect your personal reflexivity to your analytic practices without just labeling it as bias. ★ Ownership of Perspective ○ Papers reviewed displayed varying practices regarding researchers owning their perspectives, Detail Analytic Engagement with most including personal positioning related to gender identity. ★ Explain how you engaged with your TA approach in the ○ Reflexivity often remains superficial, focusing only analysis process. on personal identities rather than linking to the analytic process. ★ Active Theme Development Differentiate Theme Concepts ○ Language is crucial in theme development; themes should be seen as generated, created, or ★ Recognize and articulate the differences between topic constructed rather than merely found or emerging. summaries and meaning-based interpretations of ○ This distinction underscores the researcher’s themes. active role in shaping analysis. ★ Theoretical Assumptions Language Consistency ○ Researchers must articulate their theoretical assumptions guiding the use of TA. ★ Use terminology consistent with your TA approach in ○ TA operates closer to a method than a discussing theme development. methodology, necessitating a clear theoretical foundation. ★ Complexity of Realist Practices Provide Thematic Structure ○ The compatibility of realist practices (e.g., saturation, triangulation, member checking) with ★ Offer a clear overview of themes, such as through a list, reflexive TA is questioned. table, or thematic map. 11 Field Methods in Psychology Althea Marie L. Nicolas | Term 1 | AY 2024-2025 BSMA Psychology and Counseling III-13 Align Quality Standards ★ Ensure that quality measures used are coherent with your TA approach and theoretical assumptions. 12