IE 424 Quality Management System PDF

IE 424: Practice with Comprehensive Examination, 2024 Quality Management System INTRODUCTION TO QUALITY MANAGEMENT DEFINITIONS OF QUALITY Quality should be aimed at the needs of the customer, present and future. - Dr Edward Deming Quality is the total composite of product and services characteristics of marketing, engineering, manufacturing and maintenance through which the product and service in use will meet the expectations of the customer. -Armand V. Feigenbaum Fitness for use or purpose is a definition of quality that evaluates how well the product performs for its intended use. -Joseph Juran Quality is the conformance to requirements/specifications. This is a definition of quality to find out, how well a product or service meets the targets and tolerances determined by its designers. -Philip Crosby Quality is the loss (from function variation and harmful effects) a product causes to society after being shipped, other than any losses caused by its intrinsic functions. -Dr Genichi Taguchi Y IMPORTANT QUALITY TERMS OP Quality improvement can be distinguished from quality control in that quality improvement refers to purposeful change of a process to improve the reliability of achieving an outcome. Quality control is the ongoing effort to maintain the integrity of a process to maintain the reliability of achieving an outcome. TC Quality assurance is the planned or systematic action necessary to provide enough confidence that a product or service will satisfy the given requirements of quality. TYPES OF QUALITY Quality of Design NO o based on the use of market research to identify the product characteristics which connote quality to customers. o begins with consumer research and sales call analysis and is followed by the development of adequate specifications. Quality of Conformance o deals with translating user-based characteristics into identifiable product attributes. o It refers to the extent to which a firm and its suppliers can create products with a predictable degree of dependability and uniformity at a given cost in keeping with the quality requirements DO determined by the study on quality of design. Quality of Performance o deals with organizing the manufacturing process to ensure that product quality stringently adheres to specifications. o The major tools used to deduce the quality of performance are a study of after-sales service and service call analysis 1 COMPILED BY: ENGR. ANGELICA C. CALINGASAN, CIE IE 424: Practice with Comprehensive Examination, 2024 Quality Management System THREE LEVELS OF QUALITY o Organizational level At this level, quality concerns revolve around meeting the requirements of the external customer. An organization must seek customer inputs on a regular basis. The following questions are designed to help define quality at this level: What products and services meet your expectations? What products and services do not meet your expectations? What are the products or services that you need but are not receiving? Are you receiving products or services that you do not need? o Process level At the process level, organizational units are classified as functions or departments such as those undertaking marketing, design, product development, operations, finance, purchasing, billing and so on. o Performer or job level or task design level At the performer level, standards for output must be based on quality and customer service Y requirements that originate at the organizational and process levels. These standards include requirements for innovation, timeliness, completeness, accuracy and costs. OP TC NO DO WHAT IS A QUALITY SYSTEM? According to the ASQ glossary, a quality management system (QMS, alternatively "quality system") is a mechanism for managing and continuously improving core processes to "achieve maximum customer satisfaction at the lowest overall cost to the organization". 2 COMPILED BY: ENGR. ANGELICA C. CALINGASAN, CIE IE 424: Practice with Comprehensive Examination, 2024 Quality Management System By bringing together philosophies, standards, methodologies and tools, the QMS helps an organization achieve its quality-related goals. A quality system is a specific implementation of quality philosophies/concepts, standards, methodologies and tools, for the purpose of achieving quality-related goals. Quality management is the act of overseeing all activities and tasks needed to maintain a desired level of excellence. This includes the determination of a quality policy, creating and implementing quality planning and assurance, and quality control and quality improvement. (Adam Barone) HISTORY OF TOTAL QUALITY MANAGEMENT The history of total quality management (TQM) began initially as a term coined by the Naval Air Systems Command to describe its Japanese-style management approach to quality improvement. An umbrella methodology for continually improving the quality of all processes, it draws on a knowledge of the principles and practices of: The behavioral sciences Y The analysis of quantitative and non-quantitative data Economics theories Process analysis OP TC NO DO 3 COMPILED BY: ENGR. ANGELICA C. CALINGASAN, CIE IE 424: Practice with Comprehensive Examination, 2024 Quality Management System TQM requires six basic concepts A committed and involved management to provide long-term top-to-bottom organizational support. An unwavering focus on the customer, both internally and externally. Effective involvement and utilization of the entire work force. Continuous improvement of the business and production process Y Treating suppliers as partners Establish performance measures for the processes OP TC NO DO New and Old Cultures of Quality 8 KEY PRINCIPLES OF QUALITY MGT. 4 COMPILED BY: ENGR. ANGELICA C. CALINGASAN, CIE IE 424: Practice with Comprehensive Examination, 2024 Quality Management System Derived from the ISO 9001:2000 Standard 1. Customer Focus: Management should understand (and anticipate) the customers' needs and requirements, and strive to exceed customer expectations in meeting them; 2. Leadership: Management should establish unity of purpose and direction, create and maintain an environment in which everyone can participate in achieving the organization's objectives; 3. Involvement of People: Management should involve all people at all levels so that they willingly contribute their abilities in achieving the organization's goals; 4. Process Approach: Management should recognize that an objective is achieved more efficiently when activities and associated resources are managed together as a process; 5. Systems Approach: Management should recognize that identifying and understanding interrelated processes, and managing them as a system, is more efficient and effective in achieving the organization's objectives; 6. Continual Improvement: Management should aim at steady, incremental improvement in the organization's overall performance as a permanent objective; Y 7. Factual Approach to Decision Making: Management should base its decisions solely on the analysis of data and information; OP 8. Mutually Beneficial Supplier Relationships: Management should enhance the interdependent relationship with its suppliers for mutual benefit and in creation of value. TC NO DO The following points should be kept in mind while implementing TQM: The management must establish TQM as an objective and accept responsibility. Top management must be able to overcome the obstacles, most of which will emanate from the management itself. Resources, i.e. people, time, money and effort, must be dedicated over a long period of time. Employees will need to be continually assured of the management's commitment in the form of actions and not mere words. As a cultural change is warranted, managers must alter their style and methods from one of controlling employees in a bureaucratic manner to that of encouraging employee initiative and involvement. It will require tremendous effort from the top management to create a quality environment by launching behavioral changes, building skills through training and communication and ensuring timely actions to sustain the effort. BENEFITS OF TOTAL QUALITY MANAGEMENT Strengthened competitive position 5 COMPILED BY: ENGR. ANGELICA C. CALINGASAN, CIE IE 424: Practice with Comprehensive Examination, 2024 Quality Management System Adaptability to changing or emerging market conditions and to environmental and other government regulations Higher productivity Enhanced market image Elimination of defects and waste Reduced costs and better cost management Higher profitability Improved customer focus and satisfaction Increased customer loyalty and retention Increased job security ·Improved employee morale Enhanced shareholder and stakeholder value Improved and innovative processes BARRIERS TO TQM IMPLEMENTATION Competitive markets Lack of effective measurement of quality Bad attitudes improvement Lack of quality leadership Poor planning Y Deficiency of cultural dynamism Lack of management commitment Inadequate resources for TQM Resistance of the workforce OP Lack of customer focus Lack of proper training EMERGING TRENDS IN QUALITY Inadequate human resource development o Technological advances of the past decade have resulted in a new industrial revolution often referred TC to as the fourth industrial revolution or "Industry 4.0." o It’s a revolution driven by the exponential growth of disruptive technologies and the changes those technologies are bringing to the workplace,the workforce, and the markets organizations serve. QUALITY 4.0 "Quality 4.0" is a term that references the future of quality and organizational excellence within the context of Industry 4.0. NO Quality professionals can play a vital role in leading their organizations to apply proven quality disciplines to new, digital, and disruptive technologies The term “Quality 4.0” comes from “Industry 4.0” – the “fourth industrial revolution” originally addressed at the Hannover (Germany) Fair in 2011. That meeting emphasized the increasing intelligence and interconnectedness in “smart” manufacturing systems, and reflected on the newest technological innovations in historical context. DO QUALITY 4.0 EQUATION Quality 4.0 = Connectedness + Intelligence + Automation (C-I-A) for Performance Innovation EVOLUTION OF QUALITY 4.0 6 COMPILED BY: ENGR. ANGELICA C. CALINGASAN, CIE IE 424: Practice with Comprehensive Examination, 2024 Quality Management System Y OP TC NO ESTABLISHING AND IMPLEMENTING QUALITY 4.0 PRINCIPLES To achieve excellence through quality is to embrace the future of quality. It is paramount that quality professionals help their organizations make the vital connection between quality excellence and their ability to thrive in disruption, using quality principles to enable transformation DO and growth. PEOPLE Quality 4.0 is more than technology. It’s a new way for quality professionals to manage quality with the digital tools available today and understanding how to apply them and achieve excellence through quality. By speaking the digital language and making the case for quality in disruption, quality professionals can elevate their role from enforcers to navigators to successfully guide organizations through digital disruption and toward excellence. PROCESS As more work is automated the need for flawless processes remains the same, if not more important. Existing processes will be broken and the need to educate the next generation of workers to implement new processes and strategies will be vital to not only the quality professional but also business operations. Quality is a vital link and should be included at the strategic level for sustainability during digital transformation. TECHNOLOGY Technology is growing 10 times faster than it used to, and organizations’ platforms, such as processes, systems, data, operations and governance, must keep pace. Technology also is a great leveller because it gives any individual with the right idea and intent the capability that previously was available only to large organizations. 7 COMPILED BY: ENGR. ANGELICA C. CALINGASAN, CIE IE 424: Practice with Comprehensive Examination, 2024 Quality Management System Quality professionals must move from data analyst roles to data wrangler roles by engaging with new technologies, understanding these technologic advancements and the potential outputs they create, and determining how and when to use them. QUALITY 4.0 TOOLS Quality 4.0 tools below should be leveraged to alleviate these challenges when implementing and deploying systems to support digital transformation. Artificial intelligence: computer vision, language, processing, chatbots, personal assistants, navigation, robotics, making complex decisions. Big data: infrastructure (such as MapReduce, Hadoop, Hive, and NoSQL databases), easier access to data sources, tools for managing and analyzing large data sets without having to use supercomputers. Machine learning: text analysis, recommendation systems, email spam filters, fraud detection, classifying objects into groups, forecasting. Data science: the practice of bringing together heterogeneous data sets for making predictions, performing classifications, finding patterns in large datasets, reducing large sets of observations to most significant predictors, applying sound traditional techniques (suchas visualization, inference and simulation) to generate viable models and solutions. Blockchain or (Distributed Ledger Technology (DLT): increasing transparency and auditability of transactions (for assets and information), monitoring conditions so Y transactions don’t occur unless quality objectives are met. Deep learning: image classification, complex pattern recognition, time series forecasting, text OP generation, creating sound and art, creating fictitious video from real video, adjusting images based on heuristics (make a frowning person in a photo appear to smile, for example). Enabling technologies: affordable sensors and actuators, cloud computing, open-source software, augmented reality (AR), mixed reality, virtual reality (VR), data streaming (such as Kafka and Storm), 5G networks, IPv6, IoT. TC QUALITY PROGRESSION Quality as inspection: In the early days, quality assurance relied on inspecting bad quality out of the total items produced. Walter A. Shewhart’s methods for statistical process control helped operators determine whether variation was due to random or special causes. Quality as design: Inspired by W. Edwards Deming’s recommendation to cease dependence on inspection, more holistic methods emerged for designing quality into processes to NO prevent quality problems before they occurred. Quality as empowerment: TQM and Six Sigma advocate a holistic approach to quality, making it everyone’s responsibility and empowering individuals to contribute to continuous improvement. Quality as discovery: In an adaptive, intelligent environment, quality depends on how quickly we can discover and aggregate new data sources, how effectively we can discover root causes and how well we can discover new insights about ourselves, our products and our organizations. QUALITY 4.0 VALUE PROPOSITIONS DO Augment (or improve upon) human intelligence. Increase the speed and quality of decision-making. Improve transparency, traceability and auditability. Anticipate changes, reveal biases and adapt to new circumstances and knowledge. Evolve relationships, organizational boundaries and concept of trust to reveal opportunities for continuous improvement and new business models. Learn how to learn by cultivating self-awareness and other-awareness as skills. Quality professionals are perfectly positioned to propose and lead digital transformation initiatives because they have deep skills in: Systems thinking Data-driven decision making Leadership for organizational learning Establishing processes for continuous improvement Understanding how decisions affect people: lives, relationships, communities, well-being, health, and society in general INGREDIENTS FOR EFFECTIVE IMPLEMENTATION OF QUALITY 4.0 Handling big data. Quality 4.0 will be possible if we handle this big data for quality management. The data should be handled strategically in all three areas of quality which includes quality of design, quality of conformance and quality of performance. 8 COMPILED BY: ENGR. ANGELICA C. CALINGASAN, CIE IE 424: Practice with Comprehensive Examination, 2024 Quality Management System Using prescriptive analytics algorithms for quality metrics. Quality 4.0 stresses the importance of prescriptive analytics compared to descriptive/ predictive/diagnostic analysis in quality planning, control and improvement. Effective vertical, horizontal and end-to-end integration through Quality 4.0. A quality management system should concentrate on all three types of integration to create an efficient and effective Quality 4.0 programme by strategically extracting, analysing and deciding on the data based on all three forms of integration Use Quality 4.0 for strategic advantage. Organizations that compete on quality using digital technologies should therefore use an operational strategy that is based on continuous improvement using both digital technologies and big data. Leadership for Quality 4.0. extending the knowledge-oriented leadership to incorporate innovative role modelling, stimulating knowledge diffusion, supportive behaviour, delegation, consulting and mentoring, to the construct of knowledge-oriented leadership. Training for Quality 4.0. The Quality 4.0 skills needed would be technical skills such as install and operate IT, RFID tags and big data analysis. There would also be a requirement of transformational skills such as adaptability, critical thinking, creativity and social skills such as teamwork and knowledge transfer. Organizational culture for Quality 4.0. Quality 4.0 will require an organization-wide culture which promotes quality by using modern technologies. Organizations will have to strategically Y inculcate the culture of quality within the organization, particularly given that changing the organizational culture is a long-term process Top management support for Quality 4.0. The top management support is also crucial for the OP success of quality 4.0, not only in terms of allocating resources but also in terms of motivation provided for employees to accept and use the Quality. ASQ AND BCG QUALITY 4.0 STUDY In 2018, Boston Consulting Group (BCG) invited ASQ to partner in a study exploring Quality 4.0, focused TC primarily on the manufacturing sector in the U.S. and Germany. The study sought professionals’ perceptions of skills needed to implement Quality 4.0, obstacles to implementing, and cases for the use of digital quality management QUALITY MANAGEMENT GURUS NO Quality Management Philosophies & Practice w/ Management Gurus Dr. W. Edwards Deming - "It is not enough to just do your best or work hard. You must know what to work on." ✔ American engineer, physicist, multi-awarded statistician and management consultant. ✔ Introduced Statistical Quality Control into industrial operations. ✔ Through his ideas, product quality improved resulting to popular customer satisfaction. ✔ Contributed directly to Japan’s phenomenal growth and its current technological leadership in automobiles, shipbuilding and electronics. DO Dr. Edwards Deming Teaching’s 1. The problems facing manufacturers can be solved through cooperation, despite differences. 2. Marketing is not "sales," but the science of knowing what people who buy your product repeatedly think of that product and whether they will buy it again, and why. 3. That In the initial stages of design, you must conduct market research, applying statistical techniques for experimental and planning and inspection of samples. 4. And you must perfect the manufacturing cycle process. Deming: On Achieving Quality (Companies should direct 4 efforts towards) Innovation of products Innovation of processes Improvement of existing products Improvement of existing processes Deming’s Advocacy PDCA (On Quality Philosophy) PLAN 9 COMPILED BY: ENGR. ANGELICA C. CALINGASAN, CIE IE 424: Practice with Comprehensive Examination, 2024 Quality Management System DO CHECK ACT Deming’s Four System’s of Profound Knowledge 1. Appreciation of a System: Understanding the 3 overall processes involving suppliers, producers, and customers (or recipients) of goods and services; Interactions and feedback Avoiding internal restrictions Company structure and systems. 2. Knowledge of Variation: Is the range and causes of variation in quality, and use of statistical sampling in measurements; Normal, flexibility of the system; Determination of special causes that create defects and eliminating them; 3. Theory of Knowledge: The concepts explaining knowledge and the limits of what can be known. 4. Knowledge of Psychology: The Concepts of Human Nature. Y “The various segments of the system of profound knowledge proposed here cannot be separated.” They interact with each other. (appreciation, variation & knowledge) OP Thus, knowledge of psychology is incomplete without knowledge of variation. Deming’s 14-point Management Philosophy 1. Create constancy of purpose for continual improvement of systems, services. products and TC To become excellent, satisfy customers, and provide jobs. To reduce defects and cost of development. 2. Adopt a commitment to seek continual improvements. Constantly and forever improve the system development processes; To improve quality and productivity; To constantly decrease the time and cost of systems; NO “Improving quality is not a one-time effort”. 3. Switch from defect detection to defect prevention; Cease dependence on unending oversight of everything your employees do; Reduce the need for inspection on a mass basis by building quality into the system in the first place; Inspection is not the answer. It is too late and unreliable – it does not produce quality; 4. End the practice of assuming the cheapest way is the best way. DO End the practice of awarding business on price; Move towards quality of product, reliability of delivery and willingness to cooperate and improve. Build partnerships; Establish loyal ties with suppliers of quality materials & equipment; Be warned against this scenario: - the purchasing department consistently patronizes those vendors who offer the lowest prices; 5. Continuously improve the system of production and service. Product should be monitored by the workers, throughout the assembly process, to meet a series of quality standard. Companies must develop a consistent, active plan that involves its entire labor force in the drive towards total quality. 6. Institute training on the job. Everyone must be trained according to the skills the workers need; Knowledge is essential for improvement. 7. Institute leadership to improve all job functions. Supervision must change from chasing, to coaching and support; It is a manager’s job to help their people and their systems do a better job; 8. Drive out fear and encourage two-way communication. Drive out fear, so that everyone may work effectively. Management should be held responsible for the faults of the organization and environment. 10 COMPILED BY: ENGR. ANGELICA C. CALINGASAN, CIE IE 424: Practice with Comprehensive Examination, 2024 Quality Management System 9. Remove barriers between departments. Break down barriers between areas People must work as a team with one common goal; They must foresee and prevent problems during systems development and use. 10. Eliminate slogans, exhortation, and targets for the work force; Instead, focus on the system and morale of the workers; Slogans from executives never helped anybody do a good job. “Let people put up their own slogans if they want to” The responsibility of any project managers must change from schedules to quality of output; Alternatively, learn the capabilities of processes, and how to improve them. 11.Strive to eliminate unnecessary numerical quotas Eliminate work standards (quotas) on the factory floor. Substitute with leadership. Set realistic targets. (Be SMART) Eliminate MBO. Avoid numerical goals. Instead be a leader not a manager; 12. Remove barriers of pride to workmanship. Remove barriers that rob people in management and in engineering of their right to pride of workmanship. Y People are eager to do a good job and are distressed when they can’t. Remove defective equipment, misguided supervisors, and indifferent workers while interfering with the quality work. OP 13. Institute a vigorous program of education and self-improvement for everyone. There must be a continuing commitment to training and educating managers and professional staff. "Massive training is required to instill the courage to break with tradition. Every activity and every job is a part of the process. TC 14. Take action to affect the transformation. Publish top management’s permanent commitment to continuous improvement of quality and productivity Put everybody in the company to work to accomplish the transformation. The transformation is everybody's job. NO Dr. Joseph Juran - “Architect of Quality” Concept: Introduced to the management the dimensions of: Planning, Organizing, Leading, and Controlling that focused on the responsibility of the management to achieve quality and the need for setting the goals. One of Joseph JURAN philosophy on quality is to focuses on: Top-Down Instructional Management DO Enhance Technical Process Methods Dr. Joseph Juran’s Trilogy A philosophy approach to cross-functional management, which is composed of three managerial processes: 1. Quality Planning: Without change, there will be a constant waste; 2. Quality Control: During change, there will be increased in costs, but 3. Quality Improvement: After the improvement, margins will be higher and the increased costs get recouped; Juran’s 10-point Philosophy Program 1. Build awareness of need and opportunity for improvement: Survey the staff, asking them why the mistakes were made; After a week, select the top ten reasons; Decide how to make sure those mistake-causing steps aren’t repeated; Keep track of the number of mistakes being made, to make sure they are decreasing. Now we have just created a quality improvement program! 2. Set goals for improvement: Establish specific goals to be reached. 11 COMPILED BY: ENGR. ANGELICA C. CALINGASAN, CIE IE 424: Practice with Comprehensive Examination, 2024 Quality Management System Establish plans for reaching the goals. Assign clear responsibility for meeting the goals. Base the rewards on results achieved. 3. Organize to reach your goals. Establish quality council Identify problems Select projects Appoint teams Designate facilitators 4. Provide Training. Management must know how important education and training are. The investment in “Education and Training” is high, but the rewards are great. 5. Carry out projects to solve problems. Large improvements are usually the result of interdepartmental or even cross-functional quality improvement teams. These are the vital few problems that create the breakthroughs in quality by reducing waste and improving customer satisfaction dramatically. 6. Report progress Y Importance here is on the progress expected and the actual progress achieved. Necessary actions to improve the status can be initiated to reduce the variance. Information on the progress also provides the management the confidence on the improvement OP activity. 7. Give Recognition Recognition is a means of providing morale to both those involved in the improvement activity and all others in an organization. This is an important activity to be done by the management as improvements provide a change TC for betterment resulting in savings to the company and at times, the improvements are made possible against lot of criticisms. Recognition rejuvenates the spirits and makes it possible for improvement areas in other spheres. 8. Communicate Result. Lesson learnt during the improvement process requires to be shared to create an awareness of the approach taken and the possibility to learn and improve further. NO It also provides an outlook for people in other areas to the basis for triggering similar improvements in their areas. 9. Keep Score. A Company’s goals are achieved step-by-step. Each step taking it nearer to the targeted goals. Further steps to be taken shall involve an action based on the lesson in the previous steps. Tracking the progress and measuring it provides the management the leverage to control the DO process. 10. Maintain momentum by making annual improvement part of the regular process of the company. Actions taken in the above steps shall involve the people and sustaining their involvement in improvement activity is a must to achieve the long-term organizational goals and to remain competitive. Juran approach is very many people oriented and it places a strong emphasis upon teamwork and a project–based approach. Philip Crosby - “Do it Right the First Time” Quality Philosophy Philip Crosby’s Four Absolutes of Quality Management: 1. Quality is conformance to requirements 2. Quality prevention is preferable to quality inspection 3. Zero defects is the quality performance standard 4. Quality is measured in monetary terms – the price of non- conformance. 14 Steps to Achieving Quality.... 1. Management is committed to quality – and this is clear to all. 12 COMPILED BY: ENGR. ANGELICA C. CALINGASAN, CIE IE 424: Practice with Comprehensive Examination, 2024 Quality Management System 2. Create quality improvement teams – with representatives from all workgroups and function 3. Measure processes to determine current and potential quality issues. 4. Calculate the cost of (poor) quality 5. Raise quality awareness of all employees 6. Take actions to correct quality issues: 7. Monitor progress ofquality improvement – establish a Zero Defects committee: Examine the various activities that must be conducted in preparation for formally launching the Zero Defects program. The quality improvement task team should list all the individual action steps that build up to Zero Defects Day in order to make the most meaningful presentation of the concept and action plan to personnel of the company. These steps, placed on a schedule and assigned to members of the team for execution, will provide a clean energy flow into an organization-wide Zero Defects commitment. 8. Train all supervisors in quality improvement 9. Hold zero defects days 10. Encourage employees to create their own personal quality improvement goals 11. Encourage employee communication with management about obstacles to quality (Error-Cause Y Removal) 12. Recognize participants’ effort 13. Create quality councils OP 14. Do it all over again – quality improvement does not end: Five characteristics of a highly successful organizations are: People routinely do things right first time; Change is anticipated and used to advantage; TC Growth is consistent and profitable; New products and services appear when needed; Everyone is happy to work there; Dr. Armand Feigenbaum ▪ American quality control expert and businessman. NO ▪ Dr. Feigenbaum is the founder and president of General System Co., an international engineering company that designs and implements total quality systems. ▪ Dr. Feigenbaum believes producers produce product ultimately for consumers. Dr. Feigenbaum Four Approach to Quality: Process Improvement 1. Total Quality Control: ▪ A system where quality development, maintenance, and improvement are effectively integrated DO to ensure production and service at considerably lower costs. ▪ This ultimately leads to higher customer satisfaction, which is so critical for all businesses. 2. Hidden Plant: ▪ Dr. Fiegenbaum stated that almost 15% to 40% of an organization’s ▪ capacity is wasted by not getting the things right as they should be. ▪ He explained that the cost of quality can be understood under two heads: ▪ the cost of getting the things right and the cost of not getting them right. 3. Quality Accountability: Dr. Fiegenbaum stressed that quality is a universal concept and cannot be restricted to a department or individual. Each and every process and functional area is responsible and accountable for ensuring quality control in the organization. Quality in an organization needs to be managed actively and has to be made visible at the higher levels of management. 4. Quality Costs: Dr. Fiegenbaum described the concept of quality costs in an article in HBR (Harvard Business Review) in 1956. He stated that it is important to quantify the total cost of quality as a part of process improvement. 13 COMPILED BY: ENGR. ANGELICA C. CALINGASAN, CIE IE 424: Practice with Comprehensive Examination, 2024 Quality Management System He challenged the conventional belief that higher costs are incurred in order to deliver higher quality (in buying better quality machines or materials or hiring expensive labor). He was of the opinion that the classification of quality-related entries in a company’s ledger would enable business managers and quality experts to evaluate decisions based on improvement in costs and the enhancement of profit. Dr. Feigenbaum’s Philosophy: Three Steps to Quality 1. Quality Leadership: Management should take the lead in enforcing quality efforts. It should be based on sound planning. 2. Management Quality Technology: The traditional quality programme should be replaced by the latest quality technology for satisfying the customers in future. 3. Organizational Commitment: Motivation and continuous training of the total work force tells about the organizational commitment towards the improvement of the quality of the product and the service. Nine Elements of Total Quality Philosophy (Totally Customer Focus) Y 1. Quality is the customers perception. 2. Quality and cost are the same, not different. 3. Quality is an individual and team commitment. 4. 5. OP Quality and innovation are interrelated and mutually beneficial. Managing Quality is managing the business. 6. Quality is a principal. 7. Quality is not a temporary or quick fix. 8. Productivity gained by cost effective demonstrably beneficial Quality investment. TC 9. Implement Quality by encompassing suppliers and customers in the system. Some important Words of Dr. Armand V. Feigenbaum He is the first to consider that quality should be considered at all the different stages of the process and not just within the manufacturing function; NO The underlying principle of total quality view and its basic difference from all other concepts is that it provides genuine effectiveness; Control must start with identification of customer quality requirements and end only when the product has been placed in the hands of a customer who remains satisfied; Total quality control guides the coordinated action of people, machines and information to achieve this goal; “The first principle to recognize is that quality is every body’s job.” DO “If you want to find out about quality, you better not merely stay in your office and go through analyses and mental gyrations.” “Quality is what the user, the customer, says it is. That, I think, is the critical starting point.” “The way to make products quicker and cheaper is to make them better.” About Quality is a process. It is not a technical activity. It is not a set of seminars. It is not a set of statistics. FUNDAMENTALS OF QUALITY SERVICE CULTURE What is Organizational Culture? Organizational culture is basically a set of shared values and beliefs which interact with an organization’s people, structure and systems to produce behavioral norms. Organizational culture mirrors common views about “the way things are done around here. It is the “social glue” that binds an organization’s members together and maybe considered to be the personality of the organization. Values are principles held in high regard such as customer satisfaction, employee autonomy and innovation. 14 COMPILED BY: ENGR. ANGELICA C. CALINGASAN, CIE IE 424: Practice with Comprehensive Examination, 2024 Quality Management System Beliefs are assumptions about what is true, such as quality work will be rewarded, and promotions are based on merit. Norms are standards of expected behavior or established ways of doing things which are developed on the job Importance of Organizational Culture It increases employee commitment and loyalty because of their sense of pride and emotional attachment to certain core values. It enables the attainment of strategic goals when there is a “fit” between culture and strategies. The success of any strategy rests heavily on the existence of a supporting culture. It facilitates decision making by reducing disagreements about which premises should prevail since Y there is greater sharing of beliefs and values. It saves times as it spells out how people are to behave most of the time. OP It facilitates communications since the employees speak a “common language” and shared values provide clues to help interpret messages. Organizational culture provides meaning and purpose to work. THREE IMPORTANT SOURCES TO DEVELOP CULTURE the beliefs and values of the founder; TC the learning experiences of group members as their organization evolves new beliefs, values, and assumptions brought in by new members and leaders. What is a Quality Culture? Quality Culture is a system of shared values, beliefs and norms that focuses on delighting customers and continuously improving the quality of products and services. In an organization with a quality culture, quality is deeply embedded in virtually every aspect of NO organizational life, including hiring and promotion, employee orientation and ongoing training, compensation, management style, decision making, organizational structure, work processes and office layout. Simply put, in a quality culture, “quality” is a way of life; quality principles are mirrored in organizational practices and behaviors. Core Values and Beliefs of a Quality Culture DO Customer focus Quality is defined and judged by the customers. The mission of quality organizations is centered upon customer satisfaction. Organizational processes and procedures are designed to meet the requirements of both the external and internal customers. Employee involvement and empowerment Employees are empowered to serve customers well and believe that they have the power to make things happen Open and honest communication Employees speak the truth and quality issues are discussed, rather than hidden or ignored. Quality cannot be achieved when employees fear retribution for their candour. Employees also handle conflict constructively by confronting and resolving it. Fact-based problem solving and decision making Facts or reliable data and not opinions or hearsay form the basis of solving problems systematically or making intelligent decisions. Continuous improvement as a way of life 15 COMPILED BY: ENGR. ANGELICA C. CALINGASAN, CIE IE 424: Practice with Comprehensive Examination, 2024 Quality Management System Quality is a moving target; there is no one best or optimum level of quality. Organizations have to continuously improve the quality of their products and services to stay ahead in an increasingly competitive business world. In short, quality improvement is a never-ending journey. Teamwork throughout the organization In a quality culture, there is close cooperation between managers and employees and among departments. Teamwork is crucial as it creates a sense of ownership and commitment. Equally important, it breaks down divisional and functional barriers. Process management Long-lasting quality improvement is attained through preventive management i.e. building quality into the work processes. Quality should be attained through the prevention of errors and defects, and not through inspection. Rewards and recognition In a quality culture, rewards and recognition are based upon attainment of quality goals and demonstration of appropriate behavior. Steps in Creating and Sustaining a Quality Culture Y OP TC NO 7 TIPS FOR CREATING A QUALITY CULTURE DEFINE AND OUTLINE COMPANY VALUES DO If you want to raise the standard of your quality culture, or establish a new one, the first thing you need to do is make sure that your company values are clearly defined. TRAIN EMPLOYEES IN QUALITY CULTURE Training is a worthwhile investment that pays dividends over the course of a company’s development. Adept teams are formed through taking part in various aspects of training, including activities that reinforce the values of quality culture within their company. PURSUE QUALITY INSTEAD OF CHASING COMPLIANCE 16 COMPILED BY: ENGR. ANGELICA C. CALINGASAN, CIE IE 424: Practice with Comprehensive Examination, 2024 Quality Management System IMPLEMENT DOCUMENT CONTROL EARLY ON. Y Document control refers to the policies and procedures that should be in place to ensure that there is organizational accountability for records and other data. OP COMMUNICATE CLEARLY WITH REGULATORS It’s important to align yourself with regulators as much as possible. If you’re not planning and building systems according to quality standards, your risk of noncompliance is high and will eventually be uncovered at some point in the process. SEEK END-USER FEEDBACK TC A great way to enhance your quality culture, while also ensuring your product meets quality standards, is by soliciting end-user feedback. This feedback is invaluable to your process and can help you catch design flaws that even your most critical engineers may have missed USE A RIGHT-SIZED QMS quality culture hinges on the efficacy of the system you use to manage your quality - it’s essential to have NO the right foundation, infrastructure and tools to oversee and maintain that quality culture, and the way you set up and manage that operation is both important. 5 MAIN INGREDIENTS FOR QUALITY CULTURE A mentality of "we're all in this together" (the company, suppliers, and customers) Open, honest communication is vital Information is accessible Focused on processes DO There are no successes or failures, just learning experiences. COST OF QUALITY (COQ) Cost of quality (COQ) is defined as a methodology that allows an organization to determine the extent to which its resources are used for activities that prevent poor quality, that appraise the quality of the organization’s products or services, and that result from internal and external failures. Categories of Poor Quality Appraisal costs are costs incurred to determine the degree of conformance to quality requirements. Internal failure costs are costs associated with defects found before the customer receives the product or service. External failure costs are costs associated with defects found after the customer receives the product or service. Quality-related activities that incur costs may be divided into prevention costs, appraisal costs, and internal and external failure costs. Appraisal costs Appraisal costs are associated with measuring and monitoring activities related to quality. These costs are associated with the suppliers’ and customers’ evaluation of purchased materials, processes, products, and services to ensure that they conform to specifications. They could include: 17 COMPILED BY: ENGR. ANGELICA C. CALINGASAN, CIE IE 424: Practice with Comprehensive Examination, 2024 Quality Management System Verification: Checking of incoming material, process setup, and products against agreed specifications Quality audits: Confirmation that the quality system is functioning correctly Supplier rating: Assessment and approval of suppliers of products and services Internal failure costs Internal failure costs are incurred to remedy defects discovered before the product or service is delivered to the customer. These costs occur when the results of work fail to reach design quality standards and are detected before they are transferred to the customer. They could include: Waste: Performance of unnecessary work or holding of stock as a result of errors, poor organization, or communication Scrap: Defective product or material that cannot be repaired, used, or sold Rework or rectification: Correction of defective material or errors Failure analysis: Activity required to establish the causes of internal product or service failure External failure costs External failure costs are incurred to remedy defects discovered by customers. These costs occur when products or services that fail to reach design quality standards are not detected until after transfer to the customer. They could include: Y Repairs and servicing: Of both returned products and those in the field Warranty claims: Failed products that are replaced or services that are re-performed under a OPguarantee Complaints: All work and costs associated with handling and servicing customers’ complaints Returns: Handling and investigation of rejected or recalled products, including transport costs PREVENTION COSTS Prevention costs are incurred to prevent or avoid quality problems. These costs are TC associated with the design, implementation, and maintenance of the quality management system. They are planned and incurred before actual operation, and they could include: Product or service requirements: Establishment of specifications for incoming materials, processes, finished products, and services Quality planning: Creation of plans for quality, reliability, operations, production, and inspection NO Quality assurance: Creation and maintenance of the quality system Training: Development, preparation, and maintenance of program COST OF QUALITY AND ORGANIZATIONAL OBJECTIVES The costs of doing a quality job, conducting quality improvements, and achieving goals must be carefully managed so that the long-term effect of quality on the organization is a desirable one. These costs must be a true measure of the quality effort, and they are best determined from an DO analysis of the costs of quality. Such an analysis provides a method of assessing the effectiveness of the management of quality and a means of determining problem areas, opportunities, savings, and action priorities. Cost of quality is also an important communication tool. Philip Crosby demonstrated what a powerful tool it could be to raise awareness of the importance of quality. He referred to the measure as the "price of nonconformance" and argued that organizations choose to pay for poor quality. Many organizations will have true quality-related costs as high as 15-20% of sales revenue, some going as high as 40% of total operations. A general rule of thumb is that costs of poor quality in a thriving company will be about 10-15% of operations. Effective quality improvement programs can reduce this substantially, thus making a direct contribution to profits. 18 COMPILED BY: ENGR. ANGELICA C. CALINGASAN, CIE IE 424: Practice with Comprehensive Examination, 2024 Quality Management System Y OP TC NO DO 19 COMPILED BY: ENGR. ANGELICA C. CALINGASAN, CIE IE 424: Practice with Comprehensive Examination, 2024 Quality Management System Y QUALITY MANAGEMENT SYSTEM TOOLS OP (1) Pareto Chart Is a graph that ranks data classification in descending order from left to right. Named after Vilfredo Pareto (1848 – 1923) conducted extensive studies of the distribution of wealth in Europe. He found that there were a few people with lot of money and many people with little money TC Steps in Construction of Pareto Chart Determine the method of classifying the data: by problem, cause, type of nonconformity and so forth. Decide if dollars, weighted frequency or frequency is to be used to rank the characteristics. NO Collect data for an appropriate time interval Summarize the data and rank order categories from largest to smallest Compute the cumulative percentage if it is to be used. Construct the diagram and find the vital few. DO 20 COMPILED BY: ENGR. ANGELICA C. CALINGASAN, CIE IE 424: Practice with Comprehensive Examination, 2024 Quality Management System Y OP TC Example 1.0 Construct a Pareto diagram for analysis of internal failures for the following data: NO DO 21 COMPILED BY: ENGR. ANGELICA C. CALINGASAN, CIE IE 424: Practice with Comprehensive Examination, 2024 Quality Management System (2) Cause and Effect Diagram Is a picture composed of lines and symbols designed to represent a meaningful relationship between an effect and its causes. Developed by Dr. Kaoru Ishikawa in 1943 sometimes referred to as Fishbone and Ishikawa diagram. Causes are usually broken down into major causes of work methods, materials, measurement, people and the environment. Each major cause is further subdivided into numerous minor causes. Y OP Essentials for accurate and usable result of C &E TC Participation by every member of the team. Quantity of ideas rather than quality is encouraged. Criticism of an idea is not allowed. All ideas are placed in a diagram Visibility of the diagram is a primary factor of participation Focus on solving problem rather than discussing how it began. NO Let the ideas incubate for a period of time. The diagram are useful in… Analyzing actual conditions for the purpose of product or service quality improvement, more efficient use of resources and reduced costs. Elimination of conditions causing nonconforming products or service and customer complaints. Standardization of existing and proposed operations. Education and training of personnel in decision making and corrective activities. DO Two types of C &E Dispersion Analysis – Each major branch is filled in completely before starting work on any of the other branches Process Analysis – Type of C & E diagram, in order to construct this diagram it is necessary to write each step of the production process. 22 COMPILED BY: ENGR. ANGELICA C. CALINGASAN, CIE IE 424: Practice with Comprehensive Examination, 2024 Quality Management System Y OP TC NO DO (3) CHECK SHEETS Main purpose of check sheets is to ensure that the data are collected carefully and accurately by operating personnel for process control and problem solving. Example: 23 COMPILED BY: ENGR. ANGELICA C. CALINGASAN, CIE IE 424: Practice with Comprehensive Examination, 2024 Quality Management System (4) PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM It is a schematic diagram that shows the flow of the products or service as it moves through the various processing stations or operations. Improvement to the process can be accomplished by eliminating steps, combining steps or making frequently occurring steps more efficient. Y (5) Scatter Diagram Simple way to determine if cause and effect relationship exists between two variables. OPX – independent, y – dependent TC NO Example: DO (6) HISTOGRAM Graphically shows the process capability and if desired, the relationship to the specification and the nominal. It also suggests the shape of the population and indicates if there are any gaps in the data. (7) Control Chart Excellent decision makers because the pattern of the plotted points will determine if the idea is a good one, poor one or has no effect on the process. Example 24 COMPILED BY: ENGR. ANGELICA C. CALINGASAN, CIE IE 424: Practice with Comprehensive Examination, 2024 Quality Management System Reliability The ability of a product to perform its intended function over a period. A product that works over a long period of time is reliable one. Y Design of Experiment (DOE) The objective of DOE is to determine those variables in a process or product that are the critical parameters and their target values. OP There are three approaches to DOE: – Classical – based on the work of Sir Ronald Fischer in agriculture during 1930s – Taguchi – simplified the classical method by Dr. Taguchi and introduced additional engineering design concepts. – Dorian Shainin approach uses a variety of problem-solving methods after product is in TC production. Taguchi’s Quality Engineering Taguchi introduced the loss function concept which combines cost, target and variation into one metric with specifications being of secondary importance. He developed the concept of robustness, which means that noise factors are taken into account NO to ensure that the system functions correctly. Failure Mode and Effect Analysis (FMEA) An analytical technique that combines the technology and experience of people in identifying foreseeable failure modes of a product, service, or process and planning for its elimination. A before the event action requiring a team effort to alleviate most easily and inexpensively changes in design and production. DO FMEA intended to... Recognize and evaluate the potential failure of a product, service or processes and its effects. Identify actions that could eliminate or reduce the chance of the potential failure occurring. Document the process Quality Function Deployment A system that identifies and sets the priorities for product, service and process improvement opportunities that lead to increase customer satisfaction. It ensures the accurate deployment of the voice of customer throughout the organization from product planning to field service. It reduces start-up cost, reduces engineering design changes and most important, leads to increased customer satisfaction. QFD answer the following questions What the customers want? Are all wants equally important? Will delivering perceived needs yield a competitive advantage? How can we change the product, service or process? How does an engineering decision affect customer perception? How does an engineering change affect other technical descriptors? What is the relationship to parts deployment, process planning and production planning? 25 COMPILED BY: ENGR. ANGELICA C. CALINGASAN, CIE IE 424: Practice with Comprehensive Examination, 2024 Quality Management System ISO 9001 ISO stands for International Organization for Standardization. The 9000 series is a standardize Quality Management System (QMS) that has been approved by over 100 countries. It consists of three standards: (1) ISO 9000 which covers fundamental vocabulary, (2) ISO 9001 which is the requirements, and (3) ISO 9004 which provides guidance for performance improvement. Benchmarking It is the search for industry’s best practices that leads to superior performance. It is a new way of doing business that was developed by Xerox in 1979. The idea is to find another company that is doing a particular process better than your company and then using that information, improve your processes. Total Productive Maintenance The technique that utilizes the entire work force to obtain the optimum use of equipment. The technical skills in TPM are: daily equipment checking, machine inspection, fine tuning machinery, lubrication, trouble shooting and repair. Y Management and Planning Tools Most of these tools have their roots in post – World War II operations research work and in the work of leaders of the Japanese total quality control movement of the 1970s. OP They are affinity diagram, interrelationship diagram, tree diagram, prioritization matrix, matrix diagram, process decision program chart and activity network diagram Quality by Design – The practice of using a multidisciplinary team to conduct product or service concepting, design and production planning at one time. It is also known as simultaneous engineering or parallel TC engineering. – The major benefits are faster product development, shorter time to market better quality, less work in process, fewer engineering change orders and increased productivity. – Design for Manufacturing and Assembly (DFMA) is an integral part of the process. NO Seven new management tools Introduction Japanese developed seven more tools. Popularized by an organization GOAL/QPC in USA New Seven Management Tools Useful for process, product and system improvement DO Used by the middle and top management to find causes and solution to the problems. Qualitative in nature Orientated towards assisting the team in finding solutions and innovative management ideas. Used along with brainstorming by teams of employees Process improvement could be one or more of the following: Reducing the defect level Reducing cycle time Reducing cost Improving quality Improving project management Improving customer satisfaction New Seven Management Tools Affinity Diagram Relationship Diagrams Tree Diagram Matrix Diagram Prioritization Matrix 26 COMPILED BY: ENGR. ANGELICA C. CALINGASAN, CIE IE 424: Practice with Comprehensive Examination, 2024 Quality Management System Activity Network Diagram Process Decision Program Chart Tool 1: Affinity diagram BACKGROUND: Kawakawa Jiro, a japanese anthropologist, developed the tool in the 1960s Called as KJ method, which are the initials of the developer PURPOSE: Devised to capture the suggestions of every team member. Allow the free flow of ideas, opinions, and facts without causing any interruption. Helps in forming the basis for identifying process improvement actions. MATERIAL NEEDED: Sticky Notes/ Post – It cards Tool 2: Relationship diagram BACKGROUND: Drawn usually after making an affinity diagram for a problem. This diagram is an improvement over an affinity diagram Gives more information about the problem Y PURPOSE: Brings out the relationship of the identified causes. Allow the free flow of ideas, opinions, and facts without causing any interruption. OP Helps in establishing a relationship between factors identified and grouped using an affinity diagram in a brainstorming session. This diagram can be used to: Determine and develop QA policies Design steps to improve market share TC Improve quality Tool 3: Tree Diagram BACKGROUND: Drawn after affinity diagram has been finalized for the same project. Is highly effective way of organizing large and complex projects and breaking down into activities and specific tasks to be carried out for successful completion of the project. NO Also called as systematic diagram Searches for the most appropriate and effective paths and tasks needed to accomplish a specific project. The diagrams consist of objectives, means and how to achieve the means PURPOSE: Used to break down the improvement project into plan for detailed actions to be carried out. Facilitates identifying specific tasks to be carried out for a specific improvement project. DO Tool 4: Matrix diagram BACKGROUND: It is different from the tree diagram Also called as Quality Function Deployment (QFD) Has different types: L shape T shape C shape L – Shape and T shape matrix are the most commonly used matrix diagram L – shape is used to show the inter relationship between the two product or process or system variables in matrix format. Columns are used for representing sub-categories of one variable Rows represent sub categories of the second variable PURPOSE: Used in particular for describing the actions required for a process or product improvement. 27 COMPILED BY: ENGR. ANGELICA C. CALINGASAN, CIE IE 424: Practice with Comprehensive Examination, 2024 Quality Management System Used to arrange large data relating to two or more items and capture the relationship between them Helps in presenting complex information in easily understandable form. 1. Determine the symbols to be utilized for representing degree of relationships between the variables. Include a legend also for the symbol definitions. 2. Enter the symbols into the correct cells depending on their relationships 3. Analyze Tool 5: Process Decision Program Chart BACKGROUND: Quite useful in executing the tasks without any surprises. Good tool for identifying counter measures and taking suitable actions so as to avoid failure of projects Y Gives a representation of a contingency plan for meeting an objective. PURPOSE: OP Establishing an implementation plan for technology – development and product development Establishing a policy for forecasting and responding in advance to major events predicted in an organization or in a plant Implementing counter measures to minimize nonconformities Organizing major events TC Tool 6: Activity Network Diagram BACKGROUND: Also called as Arrow Diagram Have been used in many project in the form of Critical Path Method (CPM) and Program Evaluation Review Technique (PERT) which both are popular with project management NO PURPOSE: Helps in planning complex projects with a sequence of events. Enables to create a realistic project schedules Help planners to identify the total amount of time needed to complete a project and the tasks that can be carried out in parallel and the critical tasks which are to be monitored carefully Tool 7: Prioritization Matrix DO BACKGROUND: Also called Matrix Data Analysis Useful to prioritize the actions to be taken. A useful technique that can be used by the team members to achieve consensus about an issue. PURPOSE: Used to analyze the causes of non-conformities Identify the top most causes. Helps ranking the problems of issues by chosen criteria that are important to the organization. Analyze production processes where factors are intertwined in a complex manner 28 COMPILED BY: ENGR. ANGELICA C. CALINGASAN, CIE IE 424: Practice with Comprehensive Examination, 2024 Quality Management System Y OP BASIC METHODS OF STATISTICAL PROCESS CONTROL (SPC) Introduction If a product is to meet or exceed customers’ expectations, generally it should be produced by a process TC that is stable and repeatable. More precisely, the process must be capable of operating with little variability around the target or nominal dimensions of the product’s quality characteristics. Quality Definition NO » Quality is defined by the totality of features and characteristics that satisfy customer needs. (ASQ) » Think of a product that you would buy. » What do you look for? Quality Characteristics » VARIABLES - can be measured or expressed with some unit, such as height, length (m), mass DO (kg), cycle time (s) etc. » ATTRIBUTES - can be counted such as number of defects, errors, accidents etc. Process Variations and Quality 29 COMPILED BY: ENGR. ANGELICA C. CALINGASAN, CIE IE 424: Practice with Comprehensive Examination, 2024 Quality Management System STATISTICAL PROCESS CONTROL Y OP TC Statistical Process Control (SPC) is a powerful collection of a problem-solving tools useful in achieving process stability and improving capability through the reduction of variability. NO SPC is one of the greatest technological developments of the 20th century because it is based on sound underlying principles, is easy to use, has significant impact, and can be applied to any processes. SPC Statistical studies can be classified into two types: enumerative and analytic. » An analytic study considers the population in a dynamic sense, and its objective is to predict or improve a process or product in the future. DO » In the quality management field, statistical methods can be used for analyzing numerical data focusing on results. » “One picture is worth a thousand words”. The primary goals of SPC » Minimize production costs. » Attain a consistency of products and services that will meet production specifications and customer expectations. » Create opportunities for all members of the organization to contribute to quality improvement. » Help both management and employees make economically sound decision about actions affecting the process. » Defect Concentration Diagram The Defect Concentration Diagram is a graphical tool that is useful in analyzing the causes of the product or part defects. It is a drawing of the product (or other item of interest), with all relevant views displayed, onto which the locations and frequencies of various defects are shown. When to use a Defect Concentration Diagram? » During data collection phase of problem identification. 30 COMPILED BY: ENGR. ANGELICA C. CALINGASAN, CIE IE 424: Practice with Comprehensive Examination, 2024 Quality Management System » Analyzing a part or assembly for possible defects. » Analyzing a product (or a part of a product) being manufactured with several defects. Scatter Diagram The scatter diagram graphs pairs of numerical data, with one variable on each axis, to look for a relationship between them. If the variables are correlated, the points will fall along a line or curve. The better the correlation, the tighter the points will hug the line. When to use a Scatter Diagram? » When you have paired numerical data. » When your dependent variable may have multiple values for each value of your independent variable. » When trying to determine whether the two variables are related, such as… ˃ When trying to identify potential root causes of problems. ˃ After brainstorming causes and effects using a fishbone diagram, to determine objectively whether a particular cause and effect are related. ˃ When determining whether two effects that appear to be related both occur with the same cause. Y ˃ When testing for autocorrelation before constructing a control chart. OP Scatter Diagram » It is similar to a line graph except that the data point are plotted without a connecting line drawn between them. » Scatter charts are suitable for showing how data points compare to each other. » At least 2 measured objects are needed for the query (one for x-axis and one for y-axis) TC Control Chart The control chart is a graph used to study how a process changes over time. Data are plotted in time order. A control chart always has a central line for the average, an upper line for the upper control limit and a lower line for the lower control limit. These lines are determined from historical data. By comparing current data to these lines, you can draw conclusions about whether the process variation is consistent NO (in control) or is unpredictable (out of control, affected by special causes of variation). Control Chart » A graph that shows whether a sample of data falls within the common or normal range of variation » A control chart has upper and lower control limits that separate common from assignable causes of variation. » A process is out of control when a plot of data reveals that one or more samples fall outside the DO control limits. 31 COMPILED BY: ENGR. ANGELICA C. CALINGASAN, CIE IE 424: Practice with Comprehensive Examination, 2024 Quality Management System » A control chart is a graphic display of the actual quality performance judged against a reference frame showing a central line representing the average quality value and upper and lower lines called the upper control limit (UCL) and lower control limit (LCL). When to use a Control Chart? » When controlling ongoing processes by finding and correcting problems as they occur. » When predicting the expected range of outcomes from a process. » When determining whether a process is stable (in statistical control). » When analyzing patterns of process variation from special causes (non-routine events) or common causes (built into the process). » When determining whether your quality improvement project should aim to prevent specific problems or to make fundamental changes to the process. Y OP TC NO » Types of control charts: Control variable charts: X-bar and R charts Attribute charts: p, np, c, and u charts DO 32 COMPILED BY: ENGR. ANGELICA C. CALINGASAN, CIE IE 424: Practice with Comprehensive Examination, 2024 Quality Management System Y OP X-Bar and R-Charts » The most commonly used of the control charts and the most valuable. TC » They are ideal tools to improve product quality and process control and help to drastically reduce scrap and rework while assuring the production of only satisfactory products. » They can be used for controlling every step of production process, for the acceptance/ rejection of lots, and for early detection of equipment or process failure. » The X-bar and the R charts are used for control variables that are expresses in the discrete numbers such as inches, pounds, pH units, angstrom, percent solids, or degree of temperature and so on. NO » The R chart is developed from the ranges of each subgroup data, which are calculated by subtracting the maximum and the minimum value in each subgroup. » Since the R chart indicates that the process variability is in control, the X-bar chart can then be constructed. The center line is mean of the sample means. Example of X-Bar and R Charts DO 33 COMPILED BY: ENGR. ANGELICA C. CALINGASAN, CIE IE 424: Practice with Comprehensive Examination, 2024 Quality Management System Y OP TC NO DO » The chart of a X-bar and R should not be used with samples ≥10 or when the sample size is not constant. 34 COMPILED BY: ENGR. ANGELICA C. CALINGASAN, CIE IE 424: Practice with Comprehensive Examination, 2024 Quality Management System Y Attribute Charts » They are also used for control of defect analysis. » OP They are particularly useful for controlling raw material and finished product quality and for analyzing quality comments in consumer letters. » Attributes control charts are used when measurements are too difficult to take, when measurements do not apply to the situation (such as visual checks for flaws), or when they are too costly to take because of time lost. » p chart TC » It is the most commonly used attributes chart. » The value p is the fraction, or percentage, of the number items checked that are defective (unacceptable). » Large samples of 50 or more are needed. » np chart NO » The np chart is sometimes used instead of the p chart because it is easier; np is simply the number rather than the fraction, of defective items in the sample. » The p and np charts differ by that constant divisor, so they do the same job with respect to control, process analysis, etc. » c chart The c chart tracks the number of defects in constant size units. There may be a single type of defect or different types, but c chart tracks the total number of defects in each unit. DO » u chart When samples of different size are taken, u is the average number of defects per unit. The u chart is quite similar to the c hart in function. 35 COMPILED BY: ENGR. ANGELICA C. CALINGASAN, CIE

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