PTO 101 Exam Preparation 2024 PDF

PTO 101 EXAM PREPARATION 2024 EXAM SCOPE SEMESTER 1 Theme 3: The state Semester 2 Theme 6 A: International organization UN and AU Theme 6 B: International organization: Bretton woods system Theme 7: Global environment Theme 8: Poverty, development and inequality SECTION A: 20 MARKS Short questio...

PTO 101 EXAM PREPARATION 2024 EXAM SCOPE SEMESTER 1 Theme 3: The state Semester 2 Theme 6 A: International organization UN and AU Theme 6 B: International organization: Bretton woods system Theme 7: Global environment Theme 8: Poverty, development and inequality SECTION A: 20 MARKS Short questions Multiple choice True or false Fill in the blank SECTION B: 20 MARKS Concept questions 6 questions answer 4 questions Theme 3: The State The approach of the state: 1.Ideolist approach 2.Functionalist approach 3.Organisational approach 4.International approach 1.Ideolist approach The idealist approach by G. W. F. Hegel divides social life into three areas: the family, civil society, and the state. In families, individuals prioritize caring for one another, while in civil society, self-interest takes precedence. The state aims for the common good, encouraging people to set aside personal interests for the community. However, this approach has weaknesses, including blind trust in the state and a lack of distinction between state institutions and others. For example, a parent might skip a night out to help a child with homework, showing the family’s focus on care over personal desires. 2.Functionalist approach The functionalist approach focuses on the role and purpose of the state, with its main function being to maintain social order. The state consists of institutions that uphold this order and provide social stability. Neo-Marxists criticize the state, arguing that it helps reduce class conflict to protect the capitalist system. However, a weakness of this approach is that its definition is too broad, as it links any institution involved in maintaining social order, like families, media, and churches, with the state. For example, a community center might promote social harmony, but it isn’t a state institution. 3.Organisational approach The organizational approach views the state as a collection of public institutions responsible for organizing social life, funded by public money. This includes branches of government, bureaucracy, the military, courts, and the social security system. For example, a local government may create laws that apply to all citizens, reflecting the state’s role in enforcing collective decisions. The state has five key features 1.The state is sovereign 2.The state is a territorial association 3.The state is an exercise in legitimation 4.The state is an instrument of domination 5.State institutions are public 4.International approach The international approach sees the state as an actor that must be recognized by other states and is considered a "legal person." It has two aspects: inward- looking, focusing on internal matters, and outward-looking, dealing with foreign relations. In this view, a state includes its civil society as part of the whole country. For example, a country like Canada meets these criteria by having its own land, people, government, and the capacity to form treaties with other nations. According to the classic definition in international law, specifically the Montevideo Convention, a state has four key features: 1.A defined territory 2.A permanent population 3.An effective government 4.The capacity to enter inti relation with other states THE MODERN STATE The modern state is a coming-together of three big institution. 1.A centralized bucreaucratic state 2.Rule of law 3.Representative rule DEBATING THE STATE 1.The pluralist state: The state is a ‘referee’ in society, managing and balancing competing interests based on social contract. 2.The capitalist state: the state cannot be understood separately from the economic structure of society. The Marxist view. 3.The leviathan: the state pursues separate interests from those of society. 4.Patriarchal: Liberal feminists support the pluralist view, seeing the state as a neutral referee for equality. In contrast, radical feminists argue that the state reflects patriarchy, maintaining male dominance and oppression over women. THE ROLE OF THE STATE 1.Minimal states 2.Developmental states 3.Social-democratic states 4.Collective states 5.Totalitarian states 6.Religius states 1.Minimal states Minimal states, an ideal of classical liberals, were seen in the UK and USA during early industrialization. This approach views the state negatively, advocating for limited central authority to protect individual rights. The state’s main roles are to maintain domestic order, enforce contracts, and provide defense against external threats, functioning like a "nightwatchman," as described by John Locke. Key institutions include the police, courts, and military, while economic and social responsibilities are left to individuals and civil society. Recently, the New Right has promoted minimal state ideals, emphasizing free markets and arguing that state intervention reduces competition and efficiency, as noted by thinkers like Friedrich von Hayek and Milton Friedman. For example, a minimal state would focus on law enforcement while allowing private organizations to handle education and health care. 2.Developmental states Developmental states intervene in the economy to promote industrial growth without replacing the market with socialism. They aim to create a partnership between the government and major economic interests, often driven by conservative and nationalist priorities. Examples include Japan and Germany in the early 20th century, where government policies supported industrialization through subsidies and protective tariffs, helping these countries become major economic powers. 3.Social-democratic states Social-democratic states intervene in the economy for broad social restructuring, focusing on fairness, equality, and social justice, unlike developmental states that only stimulate growth. Countries like Sweden and Austria exemplify this model, viewing the state as a positive force for promoting equality and liberty. These states actively address market imbalances and prioritize fair wealth distribution and poverty reduction. For example, Sweden’s strong welfare programs support education and healthcare, helping to reduce inequality. 4.Collectivised states n collectivized states, the entire economy is controlled by the state, unlike developmental and social-democratic states that support a mostly private economy. Examples include communist countries like the USSR and former Eastern European states from 1917 to 1991, where the economy was organized through direct central planning by the Communist Party and emphasized common ownership. This reliance on state power suggests a positive view of the state, differing from classical Marxism, which predicted the state would eventually "wither away." For instance, the USSR managed all industries to promote equality and eliminate private ownership. 5.Totalitarian states Totalitarian states represent extreme government intervention, influencing every aspect of life, including the economy, education, culture, religion, and family. Examples include Nazi Germany, Fascist Italy, the USSR, and Saddam Hussein’s Iraq. These states use extensive surveillance and terroristic policing, impose strict ideological control, and seek to eliminate civil society and individual identities in favor of a collective identity. Progress is linked to the state's expansion of responsibilities. For example, in Nazi Germany, the regime controlled not just politics but also cultural and personal lives through propaganda and oppression. 6.Religious states In the modern world, there is a growing separation between civil and religious authority, known as secularization. However, since the 1980s, religion has re- emerged in the public sphere, leading to the rise of religious states that reject this division and base politics on religious principles. Radical religious movements aim to seize control of the state to promote moral and spiritual regeneration. Examples include Pakistan under General Zia-ul-Haq after 1978 and the establishment of the Islamic State in Iran after 1979. DEFINATIONS OF CONCEPTS The state: is a political association that establishes sovereign jurisdiction within a defined borders, and exercises authority through a set of permanent institutions. Sovereignty: is the principle of absolute and unlimited power. Neopluralism: is a style of social theorizing that remains faithful to pluralism values. Patriarchy: literally means “rule by the father” Statism: is the belief that state intervention is the most appropriate means of resolving political problems. Governance: refer to various ways through which social life is coordinated. Failed state: is a state that is unable to perform its key role pf ensuring domestic order. Theme 6 A: International organization UN and AU The different perspectives on the formation and role of international organizations 1.Realism: Overview Realists think international organizations are mostly weak because countries focus on gaining power instead of working together. They believe these organizations can threaten a country's control. However, they also say that strong countries, like the U.S., can help make these organizations work better. For example, NATO was effective in responding to the 9/11 attacks because the U.S. was a leading power in it. 2.Liberalism View Liberals strongly support international organizations (IOs), believing states cooperate because it's in their best interest. IOs help build trust and encourage countries to work together, making it easier to achieve mutual goals despite potential disagreements. 3.Constructivisim Social constructivists argue that states are not just rational actors but are influenced by ideas and perceptions. International organizations shape and are shaped by the identities and interests of member states, creating a mutual relationship that affects cooperation in the global system. 4. MARXIST VIEW Marxists criticize international organizations for reflecting and reinforcing global inequalities. They argue that institutions like the World Bank and IMF support a neoliberal agenda that benefits global capitalism rather than addressing the needs of poorer countries. 5. FEMINIST VIEWS Feminists argue that international organizations often reflect male dominance and traditional security ideas, which can worsen conflicts and overlook everyday human security needs. However, organizations like the UN, particularly through its Women, Peace and Security agenda, have started to give feminists a voice in global politics and focus on issues like gender-based violence. 6. POSTCOLONIAL VIEW Postcolonial views argue that international organizations, like the Bretton Woods institutions, reinforce global inequalities and act as tools of neocolonialism, allowing former colonial powers in the Global North to maintain control over the Global South through debt and military interventions. This suggests that interventions justified as humanitarian efforts often continue colonial power dynamics in a new guise. The United Nations From the league of Nations to the UN 1.To safeguard peace and security in order 2.To ‘reaffirm faith in fundamental human rights’ 3.To uphold respect for international law 4.To promote social progress and better standards of life. The league lacked effective power 1.It could only make recommendations, not binding resolutions 2.its recommendations had to be unanimous 3.It had no mechanism for taking military or economic action against miscreant states. THE STRUCTURE OF THE UN The UN consists of five main organs: 1. The Security Council The Security Council maintains international peace and security, serving as the UN’s negotiator, observer, peacekeeper, and enforcer. It can pass binding resolutions, impose sanctions, and authorize military action. Comprising fifteen members, it includes the Big Five (P5)—the U.S., Russia, China, the U.K., and France—who hold veto power. The other ten members are elected for two-year terms by the General Assembly. For example, the Council can send peacekeeping forces to a conflict zone to help stabilize it. 2. The General Assembly The General Assembly is the UN's main deliberative body, often called the "parliament of nations." It includes all member states, each with one vote, and can debate and pass resolutions on any issue in the Charter. It approves the UN budget, determines member contributions, and elects the Secretary-General and judges of the International Court of Justice with the Security Council. While important decisions require a two-thirds majority, they are only recommendations, not binding laws. For example, the Assembly can suggest actions on global issues, but these suggestions are not enforceable. 3. The Secretariat The Secretariat supports the UN's main organs and implements their programs, based mainly at UN headquarters in New York with about 40,000 staff worldwide. The Secretary-General, appointed for a five-year renewable term by the Assembly on the Security Council's recommendation, serves as the public face and chief administrator of the UN. They navigate a diverse bureaucracy while trying to maintain the UN's independence amid P5 rivalries. Despite challenges, Secretaries- General can influence the organization's direction, such as advocating for issues like climate change to shape the UN's agenda. 4. The Economic and Social Council The Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) has 54 members elected by the General Assembly and coordinates the UN's economic and social work. It oversees organizations like the World Bank, IMF, WTO, ILO, WHO, UNESCO, and UNICEF. ECOSOC has expanded to address specific issues as they emerge, such as UNICEF's creation to support children after World War II. For example, UNICEF was established to respond to the needs of children in post-World War II countries. 5.The International Court of Justice The International Court of Justice is the UN's main judicial body. The UN balances great power politics with member states' equality, creating tension between the influential but unrepresentative Security Council and the equally representative yet often ineffective General Assembly. This division became clearer in the 1960s as newly independent developing countries gained influence in the Assembly, while the P5 concentrated on the Council. For example, debates in the Assembly often focus on issues like colonialism and development, showcasing the perspectives of these newer members. THE ROLE AND EFFECTIVENESS OF THE UN IN PROMOTING PEACE AND SECURITY The UN's main aim is to "maintain international peace and security with the Security Council responsible for this task. The UN's effectiveness can be judged by its role in preventing or ending military conflicts. the UN has had limited success in creating a reliable system of collective security that replaces reliance on violent self-help. For example, peacekeeping missions in conflict zones have sometimes succeeded, but often face challenges in achieving lasting peace. THE STRUCTURE OF THE AFRICAN UNION (AU) 1. Assembly The Assembly is the supreme decision-making organ, setting AU priorities and implementing policies. Its decisions require consensus and include all heads of state and government from member countries. For example, during the Assembly's meetings, leaders may decide on collective actions to address a health crisis, such as a vaccination campaign across member states. 2. Executive Council The Executive Council coordinates policies of common interest and monitors their implementation, also requiring consensus for decisions. It is accountable to the Assembly and is made up of foreign ministers or their equivalents from member states. For instance, the Executive Council might agree on a common approach to tackle climate change, ensuring all member states commit to specific environmental goals. 3. Specialised Technical Committees Specialized Technical Committees focus on key AU projects and include ministers or senior officials from member states. For example, the Health Committee might work on a project to improve vaccination rates across Africa 4. Permanent Representatives Committee The Permanent Representatives Committee prepares work for the Executive Council and manages day-to-day operations of the AU. For instance, this committee might organize discussions on regional security issues, such as the conflict in the Sahel. 5. Peace & Security Council The Peace & Security Council addresses conflict prevention and resolution, consisting of 15 elected member states. An example is the Council intervening to facilitate peace talks during a political crisis in a member state, like in South Sudan. 6.African Union Commission The African Union Commission (or Secretariat) handles daily AU activities and includes the Chairperson, Deputy Chairperson, and six commissioners. For instance, it might coordinate a continental response to a health emergency, such as an outbreak of Ebola. 7. Pan-African Parliament The Pan-African Parliament serves as a platform for discussing issues affecting the continent, with members designated by national legislatures. An example is its debates on trade policies that impact multiple African countries. 8. Economic, Social & Cultural Council The Economic, Social & Cultural Council allows civil society organizations to contribute to AU policies. For example, it might gather input from local NGOs on educational initiatives to promote literacy across Africa. 9. Judicial, Human Rights & Legal Organs Judicial, Human Rights & Legal Organs oversee legal matters, including the African Commission on Human Rights. An example is the Commission investigating reports of human rights abuses in countries like Eritrea. 10. Financial Institutions Financial Institutions such as the African Central Bank and African Investment Bank are crucial for regional integration and development, mobilizing resources for infrastructure projects like road construction in rural areas. The effectiveness of the United Nations in promoting peace and security and economic and social development Promoting Peace and Security is a key goal of the UN, with the Security Council (UNSC) responsible for maintaining international peace. While the absence of a third world war suggests success, some argue it's due to the Cold War's "balance of terror." The UN's ability to enforce collective security is limited, relying on member cooperation. The P5 countries' veto power can block important resolutions, impacting issues like Russia's actions in Ukraine and Israel- Palestine tensions. Despite these challenges, the UN has facilitated peaceful resolutions in conflicts, such as India and Pakistan in 1959. Promoting Economic and Social Development became a priority for the UN in the 1980s due to globalization, which revealed how regional problems impact global issues. The shift from peacekeeping to peacebuilding recognized that civil conflicts relate to poverty, inequality, and human rights. The UN, through agencies coordinated by ECOSOC, focuses on these areas. The UNDP was established in 1965 to tackle global development, and the 1990s emphasized inequality, especially in sub-Saharan Africa, leading to the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) in 2000 and the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) in 2015. This reflected a significant change in the UN's focus on economic and political interconnectedness. DEFINATION OF CONCEPTS Collective security: The idea of common defence, in which a number of states pledge themselves to defend each other. For example, NATO invoked collective defense after the 9/11 attacks. Three key conditions for effective collective security are: states must be roughly equal, all must share defense costs, and there must be an international body with authority to act. Peacekeeping: is a technique used to preserve peace once fighting has stopped. Traditional or classical peacekeeping involves monitoring and observing peace processes in post-conflict situations. Peacekeepers are deployed after a ceasefire has been agreed upon. This type of peacekeeping is consensual, meaning it requires the approval of the host state. Peace-building: is a long-term process of creating the necessary conditions for sustainable peace. uses multiple strategies to create lasting peace. These strategies include: Economic reconstruction, Repairing and improving, Demining, Demobilization and retraining, Reintegration of displaced people, Establishment of community organizations and Revising governmental arrangements. Peace enforcement: Coercive measures, including the use of military force, used to restore peace and security in situations where acts of aggression have taken place. International organization: is an institution with formal procedures and a membership comprising three or more states. IGOs regulate interactions among members—like agreements that democracies won’t go to war with each other. For example, the United Nations facilitates global cooperation and debate. IGOs act as tools for states to pursue interests, venues for diplomacy, and active participants in global governance. League of Nations: The League of Nations, founded in 1919 after WWI, aimed to safeguard peace, ensure collective security, arbitrate disputes, and promote disarmament. However, it suffered major flaws: key powers like the U.S. and Russia did not join, its recommendations were non-binding, and it lacked military enforcement mechanisms. This weakness allowed aggressive actions from countries like Germany, Italy, and Japan, leading to their exits and contributing to the outbreak of WWII. For example, the U.S. never joined the League, weakening its authority and contributing to the rise of aggressive states like Germany. Theme 6 B: International organization: Bretton woods system What is the global governance? Is the international cooperation and management of global policies in the absence of world government. 5. Key features of Global Governance a) Polycentrism: Global governance involves many different institutions and decision-making processes for various issues. b) Intergovernmentalism: States keep significant influence in global governance, focusing on building consensus, which limits the enforcement powers of international organizations. c) Mixed Actor Involvement: Many different actors participate, including states, international organizations, NGOs, transnational corporations (TNCs), and civil society, blurring the line between public and private in global decision-making. d) Multi-Level Process: Global governance includes interactions at different levels—local, national, regional, and global—without one entity being more dominant than others. e) Deformalisation: Global governance often relies on norms and informal agreements rather than strict formal and legal bodies. BRETTON WOODS INSTITUTIONS The Bretton Woods system included three main institutions: 1.International Monetary fund (IMF) The International Monetary Fund (IMF) was initially established to oversee the global monetary system, promoting cooperation, stabilizing exchange rates, and facilitating payments between countries. In the 1970s, it shifted focus to lending to developing countries during crises. Supporters claim it helped post-1945 economic growth by providing vital loans, while critics argue it fosters instability, imposes harmful neoliberal policies, and has backed authoritarian regimes. They also point out its failure to prevent the 2007-2009 financial crisis, raising doubts about its effectiveness in ensuring long-term economic stability. 2.World Bank The World Bank, created with the IMF, aims to reduce poverty and promote economic development through wealth redistribution. Initially focused on post- war Europe, it later shifted to supporting developing countries with low-interest loans for infrastructure. In the 1980s, it adopted IMF-style policies that emphasized deregulation and export-led growth, which critics argue worsened poverty in regions like Latin America and sub-Saharan Africa. Recently, the World Bank has acknowledged environmental concerns and focused on good governance and local empowerment, but it continues to operate within a neoliberal framework. 3.WTO The GATT regime focused on reducing tariffs for manufactured goods but had limitations, such as weak dispute resolution and exclusion of agriculture and services. It successfully lowered tariffs from 40% in 1947 to 3% in 2000. Established in 1995, the WTO addressed GATT's shortcomings by including services and intellectual property agreements and improving dispute resolution. While it operates on a one-member, one-vote system, developing countries face disadvantages due to smaller delegations and lack of permanent representation, leading to criticisms of unfair practices. The role and effectiveness of the Bretton Woods system in global economic governance The Bretton Woods System aimed to stabilize the global economy but struggled with major crises, like the Great Depression and the Asian Financial Crisis, which exposed its weaknesses. The 2007-2009 financial crisis further highlighted issues with unregulated capitalism, resulting in a 1.7% drop in global GDP and a 6.1% decline in world trade, raising the need for reforms in global economic governance. DEFINATIONS OF THE CONCEPTS Global Governance: refer to set of processes through which the states cooperate, without abandoning sovereignty. Global governance is a complex decision-making process addressing global issues through various arrangements. It involves both formal and informal mechanisms, including governmental and non-governmental organizations. It’s broader than international organizations. An example is climate change agreements, where countries collaborate to find solutions. International Anarchy: is the absence of a global authority to enforce rules among states, originating from the Westphalian state system in 1648. Realists see this lack of authority as forcing states to prioritize their own survival, often leading to competition and conflict, such as military build-ups. Constructivists argue that states' perceptions of anarchy shape their behaviors; if they believe they are in an anarchic environment, they may act defensively or aggressively. World Government: is the concept of uniting humanity under one political authority, centralizing power in a supranational body with legislative and executive powers. There are two models: 1. Unitary Model (World State): This would have a monopoly on force and a strict hierarchical order, like a single global government. 2. Federal Model: This would have a central authority but allow local governments to maintain control over their own affairs, similar to how the United States operates with its federal and state systems. Global Hegemony: refers to powerful states that dominate and influence international affairs through military, economic, and ideological strength. These states aim to maintain world order based on their own preferences. Examples include the United States, which shapes global policies through its military presence, economic power, and cultural influence, often promoting democracy and capitalism worldwide. Supranationalism: involves authority above individual states, allowing an international organization to impose its will. It means transferring some decision- making power from states to bodies like the European Union (EU), where member countries share sovereignty. Critics, especially realists, argue this threatens state sovereignty and national identity. An example of supranationalism is the European Union, where member states share decision-making on trade and environmental policies while keeping some national control. Intergovernmentalism: is the interaction among states that maintain their sovereignty and independence. Unlike supranationalism, states do not transfer decision-making authority to a higher body. This interaction occurs through treaties or alliances, like OPEC, where unanimous agreement is needed for key decisions, allowing each state veto power. Bretton Woods System: The Bretton Woods System was established after World War II to manage the global monetary system, centering around the US dollar, as the US held most of the world's gold. It provided stability through fixed exchange rates and was based on Keynesian economics, helping to prevent economic fluctuations. The system led to significant global growth but ended in 1973 when countries began floating their own exchange rates. Multilateralism: Multilateralism involves three or more states coordinating behavior based on shared principles like non-discrimination, indivisibility, and diffused reciprocity. It can be informal or formal, often linked to institutions like the United Nations. An example is the World Trade Organization (WTO), which facilitates trade agreements among multiple countries. New International Economic Order: The New International Economic Order (NIEO) arose in the 1970s to fix economic imbalances between developed and developing countries. It aimed to improve export prices and give developing states more control over their economies through nationalization and stricter regulations. For instance, Venezuela nationalized its oil industry to ensure local benefits from its resources. Structural Adjustment Programmes: structural Adjustment Programmes (SAPs) emerged in the late 1970s and 1980s, linked to the IMF and World Bank. Based on the Washington Consensus, they required countries to adopt neoliberal reforms like cutting government spending, removing subsidies, deregulating the economy, and privatizing state-owned enterprises. For instance, many African nations implemented SAPs to secure loans, significantly altering their economic policies. Theme 7: Global environment Approaches to the National Environment: Realist View The realist view largely overlooks environmental issues, prioritizing survival over sustainability. Realists see human behavior as driven by natural traits like selfishness and aggression, with conflict reflecting a "survival of the fittest" mentality. They acknowledge that resource scarcity fuels competition and geopolitical tensions, often leading to resource-based conflicts. Approaches to the National Environment: Liberal View The liberal view sees nature primarily as a resource for human use, valued economically and integrated into the market. This perspective is anthropocentric, with a strong belief in science and technology to solve environmental issues. Modern liberals, however, also recognize the benefits of appreciating nature and aim to maximize happiness and reduce suffering. Approaches to the National Environment: Marxist View The Marxist view largely ignored environmental concerns, focusing instead on industrial progress and the rise of the working class. Later, eco-socialism emerged within green movements, drawing on Marxist ideas to tackle environmental issues and promote a Marxist ecological approach. Approaches to the National Environment: Feminist View The feminist view on the environment, led by eco-feminism in the 1970s, links environmental issues with gender dynamics. Second-wave feminists saw nature as tied to femininity, threatened by male-dominated science, while third-wave feminists critiqued the exclusion of women of color. Eco-feminism also draws connections between men’s domination of women and their exploitation of nature. Post-humanist feminists challenge human-centered, patriarchal structures in environmental thinking. Approaches to the National Environment: Postcolonial View The postcolonial view is critical of mainstream ecological theories, which are seen as influenced by white nationalism and ecological racism. It also critiques movements like Extinction Rebellion for lacking diversity. Postcolonialists advocate for approaches like Black Ecology and African-Centered Eco-philosophy to ensure the inclusion of perspectives from minorities and formerly colonized communities in environmental discussions. Climate Change Climate Change is a natural process that has occurred throughout history, including ice ages and warming periods, but recent rapid climate change over the past century is primarily due to human activities. In the 1990s, global warming gained attention and became a key focus of international environmental discussions. The International Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) provided authoritative information on climate change, but this led to the rise of a "denial lobby" that argued the data was inconclusive, likely due to differing interests and misunderstandings of the science. Consequences of Climate Change Impact on Human Welfare: Significant implications for the future of humanity.  Questions about the seriousness and long-term effects of global warming. IPCC Estimates by 2080: Water Scarcity: 1.2 to 3.2 billion people may face water shortages. Malnutrition: 200 to 600 million could be malnourished or hungry. Coastal Flooding: 2 to 7 million people at risk of coastal flooding. Migration: 200 to 850 million people likely forced to relocate to more temperate areas. Potential for increased wealth gaps and ethnic/social tensions. Economic Consequences: Disruption of social and economic activities. Possible global GDP reduction by 20% due to climate change effects. Catastrophic Effects: Melting of polar ice caps and permafrost may release more greenhouse gases. Changes in Arctic conditions could disrupt the Gulf Stream, causing colder weather in Northern Europe. Why is International Cooperation so Difficult to Achieve? Rio Earth Summit (1992): Established the Framework Convention on Climate Change (FCCC). Aimed to stabilize greenhouse gases based on equity, acknowledging that states have common but differentiated responsibilities. Developed countries were expected to lead by committing to 1990 emission levels by 2000. Strengths of the Kyoto Protocol: Created legally binding agreements on greenhouse gas emissions for 37 developed countries. Set the stage for an additional 137 developing countries to follow suit. Promoted the idea of carbon trading, treating carbon as a commodity and allowing for flexibility in meeting targets. Limitations of the Kyoto Protocol: The targets were not sufficient to achieve the goals of the agreement. The non- participation of the US led other developing countries, like China and India, to also not ratify the Kyoto Protocol. DEFINATIONS OF CONCEPTS Global Warming: refers to the gradual increase in the Earth's temperature, occurring over a long period of time. It is widely believed to be caused by the heat trapped by greenhouse gases. examples of global warming: Increased Frequency of Extreme Weather Events, Coral Reef Bleaching, Shifts in Ecosystems and Wildlife Migration and Ocean Acidification. Climate Change: refers to the long-term alteration or shift in the global climate system, which includes changes in temperature, precipitation, and wind patterns. These changes can be caused by human activities, such as burning fossil fuels and deforestation, as well as other environmental factors. The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) defines climate change primarily as a change caused by human actions. Kyoto Protocol: adopted in 1997 in Kyoto, Japan, is part of the UNFCCC and set legally binding commitments for countries to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by at least 5% below 1990 levels from 2008 to 2012. Its commitments were later superseded by the Paris Agreement. Paris Agreement: established at the UN Climate Change Conference (COP21) in Paris, involves 196 states and replaced the Kyoto Protocol. Approved on November 4, 2016, it aims to keep global temperature rise below 2 degrees Celsius and enhances countries' ability to address climate change impacts by reducing greenhouse gas emissions and building climate resilience. Theme 8: Poverty, development and inequality APPROACHES TO DEVELOPMENT: FEMINIST VIEW The Feminist View on development stresses the importance of addressing gender inequality as essential for progress. It emphasizes the need for social change in structures, institutions, and cultural practices, particularly in the developed world, to achieve equality and improve development outcomes. APPROACHES TO DEVELOPMENT: GREEN THEORY VIEW The Green Theory View on development critiques the traditional focus on economic growth, advocating for "development as sustainability." It argues that economic growth should be balanced with ecological costs, emphasizing that a healthy environment is essential for meaningful development. Environmental sustainability should define the limits of growth to protect the planet. MAKING SENSE OF GLOBAL INEQUALITY Global inequality raises important questions about poverty, particularly how relative poverty can increase alongside widening inequality. The complexity of defining and measuring global inequality adds to the debate. Most discussions focus on income, as it is easier to collect data, but human development offers a broader perspective on equality of opportunity. Data on inequality is often unreliable or biased, which can lead to misleading conclusions. Long-term trends show a widening gap between rich and poor countries, influenced by industrialization, but a closer look at the 1980s reveals more complex fluctuations in inequality. Additionally, the lack of clear definitions for "rich" and "poor. Contours of Global Inequality Covers three trends a) Equalising trends b) Disequalising trends c) Within-country trends 1.Equalizing Trends in Global Inequality Global inequality has been narrowing due to the rapid economic growth of China and India. Both countries implemented economic reforms in the late 20th century, shifting to more market-oriented systems and focusing on export-led growth in sectors like manufacturing, services, textiles, and technology. This shift created new jobs, which helped build a larger middle class and reduce disparities. China's Growth China experienced significant growth rates of 8% to 10% during the 1990s and early 2000s. However, this growth slowed to 7% from 2014 to 2018 and further decreased to 6.6% after 2018. India's Growth India's growth was around 7% to 8% in the early 2000s but dropped following the global financial crisis, stabilizing at about 6%, similar to China's growth rate. This rapid growth in China and India contrasts sharply with the slower growth of advanced economies, which averaged only 2% to 4% before the financial crisis and saw negative growth during it, recovering to only 3% afterward. 2.Contours of Global Inequality: Disequalising Trends The Global South has experienced economic growth, with the top 10 countries by GDP in 2018 coming from this region. Legacy of Colonialism,Historical effects that disrupt current development. Political Instability, Ongoing civil conflicts and violence hinder growth and contribute to persistent poverty. Sub-Saharan Africa struggles with economic growth due to: Reliance on Primary Commodities: Dependence on exports like minerals and agriculture makes countries vulnerable to global price fluctuations. Health Crises: Public health issues strain resources, reduce worker productivity, and negatively impact economic development. Contours of Global Inequality : Within-Country Inequality There is growing evidence that while inequality between countries is decreasing, inequality within countries is increasing. Between 1980 and 2000, 73 countries experienced rising inequality rates. n Eastern Europe, the shift to a market economy led to the removal of economic and social supports, resulting in higher relative and absolute poverty and lower life expectancy. In China, inequality increased significantly, especially between urban and rural areas. POVERTY, DEVELOPMENT AND INEQUALITY Definition of concepts Modernization theory: explains the process of modernizing societies and is linked to orthodox development. It is based on Rostow's five stages of economic growth: 1) Traditional societies, 2) Preconditions for take-off, 3) Take-off, 4) Drive to maturity, and 5) High mass consumption. The theory posits that there is a single, linear path to development, illustrating how Western countries evolved from traditional agrarian societies to modern industrial economies. Inequality: Inequality refers to the unequal distribution of resources, opportunities, and privileges among individuals or groups within a society. In the political context, it often pertains to disparities in power, influence, and access to political resources. Inequality can manifest in various ways Economic Inequality, Social Inequality and Political Inequality. Structural adjustment programmes: are economic reforms implemented by countries facing financial crises to stabilize and improve their economies. SAPs aim to stabilize economies, reduce debt, and promote growth by enforcing measures like reducing government spending, privatizing state-owned enterprises, and liberalizing trade International financial institutions, primarily the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank, implement these programmes and provide financial assistance. Conditionalities: are requirements set by the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank. These conditions must be met regarding future economic policies before loans can be approved. These conditions serve as tools for the IMF and World Bank to encourage countries to adopt market-oriented structural adjustments The conditionalities are aligned with neoliberal principles, which promote free markets, open economies, privatization, and reduced government intervention in the economy. International aid: is aimed at reducing poverty by supporting development projects and facilitating long-term growth through the transfer of goods and services from one country to another. Types of Aid 1. Bilateral Aid: Direct assistance from one country to another. 2. Multilateral Aid: Funds provided through international organizations like the UN or World Bank. 3. Humanitarian Aid: Focused on immediate needs during crises, differing from long-term development aid. International aid can be controversial due to potential self-serving motives, conditions attached to aid (strings attached), and the inclusion of loans as aid, which complicates the definition of humanitarian support. Debt Relief: is a strategy to forgive or restructure debt, enabling countries to allocate more resources toward poverty reduction and sustainable development. This issue gained prominence due to rising debts in developing nations, particularly after the 1970s debt crisis, which left many unable to repay loans and threatened Northern banks with collapse. Brady Bonds (1989): Designed to manage Latin American debt, these bonds were backed by the US Treasury to lower lender risks, requiring countries to adopt economic reforms for eligibility. eavily Indebted Poor Countries Initiative (1996): This initiative aimed to provide debt relief for 40 of the poorest countries, facilitating negotiations for reduced debts while mandating structural and social reforms in those nations. Fair trade: is part of the anti-poverty agenda. It aims to create fair trading conditions for developing countries by providing direct access to markets, fair compensation, and better working conditions. It seeks to address issues in the global trading system by advocating for the end of free trade, which is seen as harmful because it prevents people from living well and keeps them in poverty. Fair trade emphasizes moral criteria in trade, focusing on reducing poverty and respecting the rights of producers in poorer states, addressing structural disparities that favor wealthier countries.