Psychology Final Review PDF

Introducing Psychology Key Concepts 1. Psychology Definition: Scientific study of mind and behavior, focusing on systematic, controlled research to establish relationships. 2. Scope: Broad field with applications across life sciences, mental health, education, marketing, etc....

Introducing Psychology Key Concepts 1. Psychology Definition: Scientific study of mind and behavior, focusing on systematic, controlled research to establish relationships. 2. Scope: Broad field with applications across life sciences, mental health, education, marketing, etc. 3. Core Areas of Study: Cognitive processes, physiology, emotions, attitudes, behavior. Key Approaches in Psychology 1. Biological: Genetics, brain, hormones. 2. Cognitive: Memory, thinking, reasoning. 3. Sociocultural: Impact of environment and culture. Research and Theories 1. Theories: Summarize and explain psychological phenomena, predict behavior, and are evaluated for testability, empirical support, application, bias, and predictive capacity. 2. Empirical Evidence: Must be replicable and use varied research methods (e.g., experiments, observations). Nature vs. Nurture Behavior results from an interplay of biological (nature) and environmental (nurture) factors. Good Theory Criteria (TEACUP): 1. Testable: Can be falsified. 2. Evidence: Empirical and replicable. 3. Application: Practical uses across contexts. 4. Concepts: Clearly defined and measurable. 5. Unbiased: Not over-reduced or skewed. 6. Predictive: Trends in populations, not individual behaviors. Psychology and the Scientific Debate Uses scientific methods but lacks a universally agreed conceptual core, sparking debates on its classification as a science. Careers in Psychology Wide variety, including clinical, forensic, educational, sports, consumer, aviation, developmental, military, and health psychology. Mindsets and Motivation (Dweck) 1. Fixed Mindset: Intelligence seen as static, leading to avoidance of challenges. 2. Growth Mindset: Intelligence viewed as malleable, promoting persistence and effort. 3. Evidence: Dweck’s research shows growth mindsets enhance motivation and learning outcomes. Vocabulary Cognitive Processes: Memory, perception, reasoning. Physiology: Biological systems affecting behavior. Attitudes: Positive/negative feelings influencing actions. Emotions: Interaction of physiological and cognitive responses. These notes summarize the foundational concepts, approaches, and significance of psychology in various fields and human behavior analysis. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Quantitative Research Methods General Principles Psychologists support or refute hypotheses; they do not "prove" anything. Quantitative research focuses on objective measurement and statistical analysis. Operationalizing variables ensures validity and clarity in measurements. Extraneous variables can undermine study validity. Experimental Research Goal: Determine cause-and-effect relationships between two variables. Independent Variable (IV): Manipulated by researchers. Dependent Variable (DV): Measured outcome of manipulation. Example: Testing if noise affects memory recall. o IV: Noise (e.g., loud music). o DV: Words recalled. Key Characteristics: Control: Only the IV differs across conditions. Standardization: Procedures must be detailed for replication. Random Allocation: Reduces bias in participant grouping. Hypotheses Experimental Hypothesis: Predicts the effect of IV on DV (e.g., Loud music decreases word recall). Null Hypothesis: No significant effect of IV on DV; changes are due to chance. Researchers aim to reject the null hypothesis to show evidence of an effect. Field Experiments Conducted in real-world settings with lower control over extraneous variables. Challenges: Ethical concerns (e.g., informed consent) and reduced replicability. Example: Observing helping behavior on a subway. Quasi and Natural Experiments No random allocation. Quasi: Groups based on traits/behaviors (e.g., depression).  Natural: Environmental IVs beyond researcher control (e.g., policy changes). Correlational Studies Examines relationships between variables without manipulating IV. Positive Correlation: Both variables increase/decrease together. Negative Correlation: One increases as the other decreases. Bidirectional Ambiguity: Uncertainty if x causes y, y causes x, or both are influenced by a third factor. Validity Threats Demand Characteristics: Participants act differently due to study awareness. Researcher Bias: Expectations influence outcomes. Mitigated by double-blind designs. Participant Variability: Sample characteristics affect results. Mitigated by random sampling. Artificiality: Unnatural setups may lack real-world relevance. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Qualitative Research Methods Essential Understanding Produces descriptive data to understand reasons, opinions, and motivations behind behaviors. Focuses on subjective experiences rather than cause-and-effect relationships. Research occurs in natural settings; adopts an inductive approach without predefined variables. Goals & Features Describe participants' meanings attributed to events. Acknowledge subjective interpretations by both researchers and participants.  Use open-ended research questions instead of hypotheses. Data Collection Methods 1. Interviews o Types: Structured, unstructured, semi-structured, and focus groups. o Skills needed: Professionalism, active listening, and awareness of interviewer effects. o Challenges: Social desirability bias and conformity effects. 2. Observations o Types: Naturalistic, participant, or covert observation. o Considerations: Researcher bias, reactivity, and inter-observer reliability. 3. Surveys o Combines quantitative and qualitative data. o Uses tools like Likert scales and closed questions for large sample efficiency. 4. Case Studies o Detailed investigation of unique cases, often using method triangulation. o Rich data, but limited replicability and generalizability. Key Concept: Method Triangulation Combining multiple methods for richer data and greater validity. Critical Thinking Points Ethical and methodological challenges in interviews and observations. Considerations for biases and reliability in data collection. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Cognitive Processing Key Understandings 1. Mental representations guide behavior.  2. Models help explain complex processes like memory and decision-making. 3. Humans process information using sensory input, mental processing, and behavioral output. 4. The mind is scientifically studied, though it cannot be directly observed. History Cognitive psychology emerged in the 1950s due to dissatisfaction with Behaviorism. Behaviorists viewed the mind as a "black box" only measurable by observed behaviors. Cognitive psychologists emphasized studying internal mental processes such as memory, language, and decision-making. Assumptions of Cognitive Approach 1. Humans as information processors: o The brain = hardware; mental representations = software. o Processing involves bottom-up (sensory input) and top-down (past knowledge). 2. Scientific study of cognition: o Experimental and naturalistic methods are used to create, test, and refine models. o Early research criticized for being artificial; now integrates real-life context. 3. Mental representations affect behavior: o New information is filtered through past experiences. o Guides attention, memory, and decisions. o Example: Procrastination linked to prior feedback or perceived strategies for success. Concept of Cognitive Misers Proposed by Fiske & Taylor (1991): People conserve mental energy through shortcuts. Reasons for limited processing:  1. Knowledge: Lack understanding of details (e.g., food labels). 2. Motivation: No interest in deeper processing unless a strong reason arises. 3. Economy: Limited time or financial resources. Examples of Cognitive Misers Not investing in retirement: Limited knowledge or future motivation. Voting decisions: Simplified choices influenced by emotions or popular narratives. Difficulty exercising: Time and motivation outweigh health benefits. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Schema Theory 1. Definition: Schema are mental frameworks derived from prior knowledge and experience, helping us interpret, predict, and organize information. 2. Application: o Schema guide behavior (e.g., Harry Kane uses schemas to decide how to take a penalty kick based on visual cues, past experiences, and predictions). o Scripts are specific schemas for sequences of behavior (e.g., penalty scoring, movie-going). 3. Functions: o Simplify reality (e.g., a phone schema helps use unfamiliar devices). o Influence memory processes like encoding, storage, and retrieval. 4. Bartlett’s Study (1932): o Aim: To explore how cultural schemas influence memory. o Method: Participants recalled a Native American story through repeated and serial reproduction. o Findings: Memory was distorted to fit cultural expectations, with omissions, substitutions (e.g., "canoe" → "boat"), and reorganization for coherence. o Criticisms: Lack of standardization, low reliability. 5. Brewer and Treyens (1981):  o Aim: Investigate schemas in encoding/retrieval. o Method: Participants recalled objects in an office, showing schema- consistent recall (e.g., books remembered despite not being present). o Findings: Congruent items were better recalled; inconsistent items (e.g., skulls) were sometimes missed but identified during recognition. o Criticisms: Ethical concerns and mixed qualitative/quantitative data. 6. TEACUP Evaluation: o Testable: Supported by Bartlett and Brewer & Treyens. o Evidence: Biological studies show brain categorizes input consistent with schema theory. o Applications: Explains memory, behavior, therapy, and campaigns. o Construct Validity: Abstract and hypothetical; Cohen (1993) criticized vagueness. o Unbiased: Broad cross-cultural applicability. o Predictive Validity: Predicts general trends, but not precise recall. 7. Key Takeaways: o Memory is reconstructive and influenced by schemas, which are shaped by culture and experience. o Schema theory explains memory distortions but cannot fully predict individual recall or account for inconsistent recollections. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Multi-store Model (MSM) of Memory Memory Overview: Memory processes involve encoding, storage, and retrieval of information. Cognitive psychologists use memory models to represent these processes. Types of Memory: o Declarative Memory ("knowing what") includes: ▪ Episodic Memory: Personal events in specific contexts (time/place).  ▪ Semantic Memory: General knowledge (facts, concepts). o Procedural Memory ("knowing how") relates to unconscious skills and routines. Multi-store Model (MSM): o Proposed by Atkinson & Shiffrin (1968), it suggests memory consists of three distinct stores: Sensory Memory (SM), Short-Term Memory (STM), and Long-Term Memory (LTM). o Information flows sequentially through these stores (e.g., Sensory → STM → LTM). o Rehearsal is vital for STM to transfer information to LTM. Key Features: o Sensory Memory: Stores sensory input briefly. Small capacity; iconic (visual) and echoic (auditory) types. o STM: Limited capacity (~7 items, Miller’s Magic Number 7). Duration ~6-30 seconds. Requires rehearsal to maintain and transfer to LTM. o LTM: Virtually unlimited capacity and indefinite duration. Stored in an outline form (e.g., schemas). Research Supporting MSM: o Glanzer & Cunitz (1966): Primacy and Recency effects show STM and LTM are separate systems. o HM Case: Proved STM and LTM are independent, supporting separate memory stores (HM could recall old memories but couldn’t form new LTM). Critiques: o Simplistic: Ignores memory distortion and does not fully explain how STM and LTM interact. o Rehearsal issues: Some information can be vividly remembered without rehearsal (e.g., traumatic events). o Logie's Challenge (1999): STM is not just a gateway to LTM but actively interacts with it. Strengths:  o Solid experimental and case study support. o Historical importance in shaping memory research. Limitations: o Over-simplifies memory as independent stores. o Doesn't explain all memory phenomena (e.g., memory distortions). ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Working Memory Model (WMM) Introduction: The WMM, proposed by Baddeley and Hitch (1974), challenges the Multi-Store Model’s single STM store concept, suggesting multiple stores for different cognitive tasks. Dual-task Technique: Research showed that simultaneous tasks involving the same store (e.g., two auditory tasks) are difficult, while tasks involving different stores (auditory + visual) don’t interfere. Components of Working Memory: 1. Central Executive: Manages and allocates attention, controls the flow of information, and coordinates two sub-systems (limited capacity). o Automatic level: Involuntary processes like routine actions. o Supervisory Attention Level: Involved in planning, decision-making, and emergency responses. 2. Phonological Loop (Verbal STM): o Articulatory Control System (Inner Voice): Maintains verbal info via rehearsal. o Phonological Store (Inner Ear): Holds auditory information for 1.5-2 seconds unless rehearsed. o Articulatory Suppression: Disrupts verbal memory when both tasks rely on the phonological loop. 3. Visuospatial Sketchpad: Processes and stores visual and spatial information, e.g., remembering locations or visual imagery.  4. Episodic Buffer: Temporarily integrates information from visual, auditory, and LTM to allow conscious awareness of tasks. It’s limited but crucial for our understanding of situations. Case Studies and Research: Warrington and Shallice (1970): Case study of patient KF supports that auditory and visual STM are separate, with KF’s verbal STM impaired but visual memory intact. Landry & Bartling (2011): Found that articulatory suppression decreased accuracy of recall, supporting the phonological loop's role. Evaluation: Strengths: Supported by neuroimaging and dual-task experiments, it explains multitasking better than the Multi-Store Model. Limitations: Unclear central executive processes, limited focus on long-term memory, and interaction between components remains unclear. Summary: The WMM provides a more comprehensive explanation of STM, especially the distinction between auditory and visual processing and the complexity of memory tasks. However, it has areas that need further exploration, like the nature of the central executive and episodic buffer integration. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Thinking and Decision-Making Thinking: Using knowledge to make plans, interpret, and predict outcomes in the world. Decision-making: The process of identifying and choosing alternatives based on values and preferences. Problem-solving: Directed thinking to solve specific problems using mental strategies. The Dual Process Model: System 1: Fast, automatic, intuitive, relies on heuristics (mental shortcuts). Efficient but prone to errors due to simplifications. It’s used in everyday decisions and produces immediate judgments.  System 2: Slow, conscious, effortful, logical. Requires more analysis and is less certain than System 1 but can lead to more reliable decisions. Comparison: System 1: Context-dependent, generates impressions, fast, error-prone. System 2: Abstract, uses conscious reasoning, slow, logical. Example – Wason Selection Task: Participants struggle to solve abstract tasks due to System 1 dominance, which uses context-based heuristics. In a non-abstract task, System 1 performs well. Biological Evidence: Different brain regions (parietal lobe for abstract tasks, temporal lobe for concrete tasks) are activated depending on task nature, supporting the dual-process model. Inquiry – Think-Aloud Protocols: Participants articulate their decision-making process. This helps researchers understand thought processes but is not always easy for individuals to do effectively. Strengths and Limitations: Strengths: Supported by biological evidence, reliable cognitive tasks like the Wason selection task. Limitations: The model oversimplifies, does not explain interactions between thinking modes or emotions. System 1 and 2 definitions can be unclear. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Reliability of Cognitive Processes 1. Memory as a Reconstructive Process: Memory is not a perfect recording. It is subject to distortion, and memories can change over time due to various factors. 2. Emotion and Cognitive Processes: Emotions can either enhance or reduce the reliability of cognitive processes, including memory and decision-making. 3. Humans as Cognitive Misers: People tend to take shortcuts in thinking and decision-making to conserve mental energy, often choosing less complex options.  4. Biases in Decision-Making: Cognitive biases can impair rational thinking, affecting decisions and judgments. Memory Reliability: Eyewitness testimony is not always reliable. DNA evidence has shown that memories can be inaccurate. Bartlett and Brewer & Treyens: Memory can be affected at the encoding stage. The recollection of personal memories (like first dates or weddings) may vary due to distortions. Freud's View on Forgetting: Freud proposed that forgetting could be due to repression, where traumatic memories are unconsciously blocked. However, these memories could resurface symbolically in dreams. False Memories: Elizabeth Loftus' research challenges the reliability of recovered memories, demonstrating that people may form false memories through suggestion. Loftus & Pickerell Study (1995): Tested the creation of false memories using the "Lost in the Mall" technique. 25% of participants "recalled" the false memory, but these memories were less confident and less detailed than real ones. This study highlights that false memories are possible through suggestion. Critical Thinking About Loftus & Pickerell: Ecological validity: The study’s real-life relevance may be questioned due to the artificial nature of the scenario. Ethical concerns: Creating false memories could cause distress to participants. Demand characteristics: Participants might have guessed the nature of the study and responded accordingly. Reliability in Decision-Making: Decision-making often involves shortcuts, influenced by cognitive miserliness and biases.  Social, cultural factors, and biases affect decision quality, reducing the effectiveness of decision-making. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Reconstructive Memory 1. Loftus and the Washington DC Sniper Case: o A case where a myth about a white van was created through post-event information, showing how memory can be influenced by external factors. 2. Misinformation Effect: o Leading questions and post-event information can distort memory by facilitating schema processing, resulting in inaccurate recall. 3. Confidence in False Memories: o Eyewitnesses may feel confident about their memories even when they are wrong, often filling in gaps with past experiences or influenced by media and discussions. 4. Ronald Cotton Case: o Ronald Cotton was wrongly convicted based on false eyewitness testimony, later exonerated by DNA evidence. This illustrates how memory distortion can severely impact lives. 5. Loftus & Palmer (1974) Study: o Aim: To investigate if leading questions affect eyewitness testimony, particularly memory of car accidents. o Method: Participants watched car crash videos and answered questions using different verbs (e.g., "smashed," "hit"). o Findings: More intense verbs led to higher speed estimates (e.g., "smashed" = 40.8 mph). When asked later about broken glass, those who heard "smashed" were more likely to recall seeing it. o Conclusion: The choice of verbs influences how memories are formed due to schema activation. 6. Yuille & Cutshall (1986) Study:  o Aim: To see if leading questions would affect eyewitness memory after a real crime. o Method: Eyewitnesses of a real shooting were questioned with leading questions four months later. o Findings: Eyewitnesses were accurate and unaffected by leading questions, with more stress correlating to better memory accuracy. o Conclusion: In real-life conditions, eyewitness memory is more reliable, contrasting with Loftus’s findings from artificial lab settings. 7. Bahrick et al. (1975) Study: o Aim: To investigate long-term autobiographical memory, specifically names and faces of high school classmates. o Method: Participants took various tests like free recall, photo recognition, and name recognition. o Findings: Accuracy was high within 15 years (90% for names/faces). After 48 years, it declined but was still 80% for names and 70% for faces. Free recall was much lower. o Conclusion: Facial recognition shows high reliability over time, though free recall decreases significantly. Key Takeaways: Reconstructive memory is influenced by leading questions and post-event information. Eyewitness testimony, while valuable, can be distorted by the way questions are asked. Real-life experiences may produce more reliable memories than experimental settings, but memory still varies over time. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Emotion and Memory Overview Memory and Emotions: Emotional experiences are better remembered. Emotional content, such as surprises or major life events, creates vivid memories. Flashbulb Memory Theory  Flashbulb Memory (FBM): First proposed by Brown & Kulik (1977), FBMs are highly detailed, vivid memories of emotionally arousing events. Special-Mechanism Hypothesis: Suggests a special memory mechanism activated by emotionally charged or surprising events. Brown & Kulik's 1977 Study Method: Participants (80 people) were asked to recall details about public events like Kennedy’s assassination and rate personal importance. Findings: Many participants had clear memories of where they were and what they felt at the time of the events. Limitations: Can't measure accuracy or surprise levels, risk of demand characteristics. Biological Support for FBM Amygdala: Central to processing emotional memories. Emotional responses increase memory accuracy and retention. Cahill & McGaugh (1995): Higher adrenaline leads to better memory retention of emotional stories. Sharot et al (2007) - Study on 9/11 Findings: The closer participants were to Ground Zero, the more vivid their memories of 9/11. Greater amygdala activation was correlated with flashbulb memories. FBM and Genetics α2b-Adrenoceptor Gene: Involved in memory formation during emotional events. Genetic differences could affect the likelihood of flashbulb memories. Quervain et al (2007): Found genetic variation affects flashback intensity in people with traumatic memories. Criticisms of FBM Theory Neisser (1982): Flashbulb memories might not be formed instantly but could be due to later rehearsal. Neisser & Harsch (1992): Memory accuracy of the 1986 Challenger disaster was distorted over time despite high confidence. Cultural Influences Kulkofsky et al (2011): Flashbulb memories are affected by cultural values. In collectivistic cultures, like China, personal emotional importance plays a smaller role compared to individualistic cultures. Evaluation Strengths: o Biological support for emotional memory retention (e.g., McGaugh & Cahill, Sharot). o Changed how we view memory processing in the brain. Limitations: o Neisser argues FBMs are about confidence, not accuracy. o Hard to verify memory accuracy in real life. o Cultural and emotional influences complicate measurement of FBM and its formation. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Memory and the Holocaust Interest in Memory Distortion: A focus on how Holocaust survivors' memories are not always 100% accurate, yet their testimonies hold deep value. Issues in Survivor Testimonies Inconsistencies: Example of a Holocaust survivor describing events that contradict historical facts (e.g., the timeline of gassing events in Auschwitz). Reconstructed Memories: Testimonies often involve distortion or blending with historical media, like films, leading to potential inaccuracies. Collective Memory: Stories shared among survivors may become a "collective story," merging individual details with group experiences. Research on Holocaust Survivors' Memory Wagenaar & Groaneweg (1990): Study on 78 witnesses who testified against a Nazi criminal. Found significant memory distortions over a 40-year period, with key  details like maltreatment and specific murder events forgotten. However, core experiences were generally remembered. The Cognitive Psychology Perspective Memory Distortion: Cognitive psychology suggests memory distortions are common, especially in highly emotional or traumatic experiences. The Misinformation Effect: Many survivors may recall events influenced by Holocaust films or media they’ve seen (e.g., misremembering Mengele’s presence due to media influence). Survivor Narratives Delayed Recollections: Many survivors did not discuss their trauma until years after the Holocaust. Some stories might change as they retell them. Historical Influence: Survivor memories may evolve, influenced by repeated exposure to the collective narrative or other survivors' testimonies. Reflection on Memory and Truth Memory Distortion is Normal: Acknowledging distortion doesn't diminish the reality of the Holocaust but encourages using diverse sources to ensure accurate documentation. Human Nature: Recognizing that survivors are human, subject to the same memory flaws as others, reminds us to approach testimony critically without denying the horrors they endured. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Biases in Thinking and Decision-Making Overview: System 1 thinking: Fast, effortless, but prone to errors due to heuristics (mental shortcuts). Heuristics: Simple rules or "mental shortcuts" used for quick decisions, which can lead to biased thinking. Cognitive bias: Patterns of thinking or decision-making based on heuristics, which are not always accurate. Key Cognitive Biases:  1. Anchoring Bias: o Over-reliance on the first piece of information when making decisions (anchor). o Example: In shopping, the initial price influences final negotiation. o Study: Englich & Mussweiler (2001) – found that initial sentencing information impacted court judges’ decisions. o Tversky & Kahneman (1974) – students’ estimates of numbers were affected by the first number seen. 2. Peak-End Rule: o People judge an experience based on its most intense moment (peak) and its ending (end). o Example: Evaluating a meal based on a great soup (peak) and a bad dessert (end). o Study: Kahnemann et al. (1993) – painful immersion in cold water shows that the peak and end influence memory. 3. Framing Effect: o Decisions are influenced by how information is presented (positive or negative framing). o Example: In decision-making for disease outbreak, people preferred "200 saved" over "400 die" even when the result was equivalent. o Study: Tversky & Kahneman (1986) – participants were affected by whether the outcome was framed positively or negatively. Critical Thinking: Cognitive biases affect both large and small decisions. Studies often use controlled, artificial scenarios with university students, lacking ecological and cross-cultural validity. Heuristics may be used unconsciously, and people may rationalize decisions rather than accurately describe how they made them. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Emotion and Decision-Making 1. Dual Processing Model: o System 1: Fast, intuitive thinking. o System 2: Slow, rational thinking. o Emotion impacts System 1 more, increasing reliance on it when cognitive load is high. 2. Emotion's Role in Decision-Making: o Traditionally seen as impairing decision-making. o Recent research shows emotion may be essential to good decision-making. 3. Somatic Marker Hypothesis (Damasio, 1994): o Decision-making depends on emotional information connected to situations. o Damage to the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC) leads to poor decisions, even without damage to intellect or memory. o Somatic markers: physical responses (e.g., rapid heartbeat with anxiety) associated with emotions, guiding decision-making. 4. Iowa Gambling Task (Bechara et al, 1999): o Healthy participants avoided bad decks (high rewards but big losses). o vmPFC damage participants didn't learn to avoid bad decks. o Skin conductive response (SCR) used to measure emotional response, revealing reduced emotional anticipation in vmPFC damage participants. 5. De Martino et al (2006): o Emotional framing affects financial decision-making. o Participants preferred risky options when framed as avoiding loss, due to emotional involvement in decision-making. o Amygdala activity increases with loss aversion, indicating emotion's role. 6. Evaluation of Somatic Marker Hypothesis:  o Weakness: Some research suggests the poor decision-making may not only be due to emotional feedback (e.g., Bechara et al, 1997). o BART (Wright & Racow, 2017): Emotional responses do not necessarily improve future decision-making, challenging the somatic marker hypothesis. 7. Risky Decision-Making in Teenagers: o McCormick & Telzer (2017): Reduced sensitivity to negative feedback in the Medial Prefrontal Cortex (mPFC) could explain risk-taking behavior. o fMRI studies show mPFC’s role in decision-making during adolescence. 8. Real-World Implications: o Intense emotion not connected to the decision itself may also affect decision-making. o Further research needed into emotion’s role in everyday choices, especially in high-emotion contexts. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ The Digital World - Cognitive Effects 1. Tech Effects: Research on tech effects is new, with positive and negative impacts on cognition. 2. Online Time: People, especially 16-24-year-olds, spend significant time online, more than 27 hours/week. 3. Digital Classrooms: Technology in education, such as personalized learning, is becoming common worldwide (e.g., Khan Academy). 4. Effect Studies: Mixed opinions exist, with claims of tech causing issues like depression, but also improving skills (e.g., gaming improving multitasking). Mueller & Oppenheimer (2014) - Study on Note-Taking Laptops vs. Pen/Paper: o Study found note-taking by hand improves learning due to processing info in one's words (vs. laptops). o Participants: 109 UCLA students, tested on lecture content after one week.  o Results showed pen-and-paper notes outperformed laptop notes, especially for conceptual questions. Ethics of Online Research (Kramer et al., 2014) Facebook manipulated user feeds to study emotional contagion; participants unaware. Emotional state affected based on content seen in the news feed. Raised ethical concerns about manipulation without consent but argued research was of high public value. Survey Research in the Digital World Benefits: Survey research avoids major ethical issues (informed consent, debrief). Limitations: o Social Desirability: Participants may misreport behavior to seem socially acceptable (e.g., online habits like pornography). o Sampling Bias: Survey responders may not represent the general population (e.g., more social media enthusiasts may respond). ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Memory in the Digital World Google Effect: Refers to using the Internet (e.g., Google) as an external memory store; raises questions on how it affects personal memory. Transactive Memory System (Wegner et al, 1985): Suggests a form of collective memory within groups, focusing on "who knows what" and "where to find it," e.g., family members remembering different things. Impact of Internet on Memory (Sparrow et al, 2011): Frequent use of search engines (Google) may reduce reliance on personal memory. People remember information less if they think it will be available online later. o Study Results (2011): Participants who believed their data would be saved on a computer were less likely to remember the trivia they typed.  Recall vs. Location Memory (Sparrow et al, 2011): Participants recalled folder locations better than the content itself, showing that the "location of information" may be prioritized. Storm et al (2016): Experiment showed that using Google Search increased future reliance on it, reducing the use of personal memory. Reliance on External Memory Stores: The Internet is increasingly seen as a transactive memory store, and confidence in it reduces personal memory effort. The more Google is used, the less we remember ourselves. Ecological Validity: Studies often use trivia information, questioning the real-world relevance of the findings—people may rely on the Internet more for everyday information, not just trivia. Challenges & Questions: o How does dependency on the Internet for memory affect cognitive processes? o Should students develop personal memory or rely on Internet searches? o The potential consequences if the Internet was unavailable, affecting how knowledge is retained. Links to TOK: The reliance on external sources like the Internet may challenge how we know and what we remember, influencing both personal knowledge and education practices. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Technology and Thinking: Cognitive Approach Contradictory Evidence: Technology’s effects on thinking are debated: o Some studies show negative effects, such as increasing cognitive biases due to digital immersion. o Other research suggests technology, especially video games, can improve problem-solving and creativity. System 1 Thinking & Cognitive Bias: o System 1 thinking relies on heuristics and can be influenced by technology.  o Cognitive biases like confirmation bias can be reinforced through social media, where algorithms push content matching past interests. Self-Concept vs Self-Esteem: o Self-concept: Our perception of who we are (traits, skills, and preferences). o Self-esteem: Emotional reaction to self-concept, i.e., feelings of self-worth. Social Comparison Theory: o We evaluate ourselves against others (e.g., via social media). o Upward comparisons (comparing to those we think are better off) can harm self-esteem. o Excessive comparison, especially on social media, can lead to negative cognitive biases and mood changes. Research by Chou and Edge (2012): o Higher Facebook usage correlates with negative self-perception. o Those comparing more online felt others were happier/better off. Ethical Considerations: o Should social media platforms be responsible for informing users about possible negative effects? Positive Technology Influence on Thinking: o Video games, especially fast-paced ones, can improve cognitive skills like strategic thinking and cognitive flexibility. o Bavelier’s Research (2011): Action video games improve decision-making speed and accuracy. Changes in the Brain: o Kühn et al. (2013): Players of Super Mario 64 showed brain changes (e.g., increased grey matter in areas related to strategic planning, memory, and motor control). o These findings support the idea that gaming can affect cognitive processing and brain structure. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Technology, Emotion, and Cognition: Breaking News & Memory: 24/7 news access impacts our memories. Constant exposure to emotional content may lead to higher rates of flashbulb memories (vivid memories of significant events). Flashbulb Memories: Initially theorized by Brown & Kulik (1977), these memories are shaped by surprise and emotional reaction but also by prior knowledge, experience, and reception context (how we receive news). Reception Context Study (Schaefer et al., 2011): Found that visual context (TV) aids in memory retention. Immediate viewing of events led to more detailed and consistent recall. Problem with Flashbulb Memory Studies: Media coverage influences memory accuracy and vividness. Over time, anniversaries of events can lead to rehearsal, impacting memory accuracy, as shown in research by Hirst et al. (2008). Role of Social Media: Social media may enhance memory vividness, as personal reactions and social identity influence emotional recall. Talarico et al. (2017) found TV led to more accurate flashbulb memories than social media. Technology and International Importance: Social media creates a sense of global solidarity, affecting how we perceive and remember tragic events (e.g., Charlie Hebdo attack). International significance enhances flashbulb memories due to media exposure and emotional reactions. Mental Health & Technology: Prolonged exposure to emotional imagery, especially graphic images, has been linked to PTSD. Ahern et al. (2002) found specific disaster- related images lead to higher rates of PTSD and depression, emphasizing the role of what we see on-screen in shaping emotional responses. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Diagnosis in Abnormal Psychology Challenges in Diagnosis: Diagnosing psychological disorders is difficult due to varying symptoms and cultural factors. Definitions of "normality" and "abnormality" can change over time and differ across cultures. Concepts of Normality and Abnormality: Abnormal psychology studies psychological disorders. Defining abnormal behavior is tricky since it is often based on subjective judgments. Normality is often linked to mental health and satisfactory emotional/behavioral adjustment.  Diagnosis Process: Clinicians use self-reported data, physiological tests, observations, and diagnostic tools. Data triangulation (using multiple sources) is used to enhance diagnostic validity. Conceptual Definitions of Abnormality: o Statistical deviation: Behavior far from the norm. o Deviation from social norms: Based on societal standards, but these can change over time and across cultures (e.g., homosexuality). o Deviation from mental health: Based on Jahoda’s criteria (self-acceptance, personal growth, autonomy). Problems with Conceptual Definitions: What’s considered abnormal varies. Example: synesthesia (seeing sounds) is statistically abnormal but not a disorder. Cultural and Social Differences: Cultural norms influence the perception of abnormality. Hearing voices may be normal in some cultures but abnormal in others (e.g., Ghana vs Western perceptions of schizophrenia). Practical Definitions: Focus on observable dysfunction and distress. Rosenhan & Seligman’s criteria for abnormal behavior include irrationality, maladaptiveness, observer discomfort, suffering, unpredictability, violation of community standards, and unconventionality. Bias in Diagnosis: Social and cultural biases can affect diagnosis. The use of diagnostic systems like the DSM and ICD can lead to overdiagnosis or misdiagnosis, especially when cultural factors aren't considered. Emerging Disorders: The DSM-V mentions Internet Use Disorder as a potential future diagnosis, needing further research for classification. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Classification Systems - Abnormal Psychology Key Concepts Classification systems identify behavioral or mental symptoms that occur together to define disorders. Major systems: o DSM-5: U.S.-based, focuses on symptoms, clinical/medical conditions, and psychosocial stressors.  o ICD: WHO-based, global use, includes causes and low-cost accessibility. o CCMD: Includes culturally specific disorders like qigong deviation syndrome. Purposes of Classification Systems Standardize diagnoses. Provide common language for communication among psychiatrists. Help determine effective treatments. Key Differences Between DSM-5 and ICD-11 DSM-5: U.S. psychiatrists, revenue-driven, symptom-based. ICD: Global focus, multidisciplinary, low-cost, cause-inclusive. Diagnosing Psychological Disorders Methods: o Clinical interviews (standardized but subjective). o Self-reports and family input. o Observations and psychometric/physiological tests. ABCS Framework for Symptoms: o Affective: Emotional, e.g., fear, sadness. o Behavioral: Observable actions, e.g., crying, pacing. o Cognitive: Thought patterns, e.g., pessimism. o Somatic: Physical signs, e.g., weight changes. Limitations Reactivity (behavior altered by observation). Sick role bias (seeking help assumed as mental illness). Subjectivity (clinician’s experience/style influences diagnosis). Criticism of the DSM Growth in diagnostic categories increases stigma. Cutoffs (e.g., 5 out of 9 symptoms for diagnosis) are arbitrary.  Research for DSM-5 relies on non-diverse samples. Western-centric, emphasizing independence/self-sufficiency. Gender bias in certain diagnoses. U.S.-specific issues like insurance-mandated diagnoses. Reflection & Case Study Examples DSM evolution since 1952 shows changing norms in diagnosing mental illnesses. Disorders like PMDD spark debates over criteria and definition of mental illness. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Validity and Reliability in Diagnosis Key Definitions Validity: A correct diagnosis that leads to effective treatment. o Challenges: ▪ Dependence on self-reported data. ▪ Diagnosis validity does not always equate to effective treatment. Reliability: Consistency across psychiatrists using the same classification system. Key Research Rosenhan (1973) Tested the validity of psychiatric diagnoses and institutionalization effects. Method: Healthy individuals feigned auditory hallucinations to gain hospital admission. Results: o Diagnosed with schizophrenia, later “in remission” upon discharge. o Normal behavior interpreted as abnormal due to confirmation bias. Impacts: o Raised awareness about diagnosis flaws and patient rights.  o Led to hospital reforms and use of data triangulation. Limitations: Ethical concerns: Lack of consent, deception, and no debriefing. Researcher bias in interpretation of staff notes. Focused only on schizophrenia. Lipton & Simon (1985) Re-diagnosed 131 patients at a hospital in New York. Findings: Only 16 of 89 schizophrenia diagnoses were consistent; many were re- diagnosed with mood disorders. Highlighted inconsistencies in diagnostic systems. Lobbestael, Leurgans & Arntz (2011) Examined reliability using DSM-IV with audio-taped clinical interviews. Findings: o 71% reliability for major depression. o 84% reliability for personality disorders. Strengths: Single-blind, controlled non-verbal cues. Limitations: Lack of non-verbal data could affect the first psychiatrist's decision. Challenges in Diagnosis 1. Measurement Issues: Symptoms like concentration loss or feelings of helplessness are subjective. 2. Comorbidity: Multiple disorders may overlap (e.g., depression and alcohol use). 3. Lack of Objective Testing: Limited ability to use biological markers (e.g., blood tests). 4. Biases: Dependence on self-reported data increases error risk. Impacts of Reliable Diagnostic Systems Standardized criteria improve consistency among clinicians. Does not guarantee validity; a correct diagnosis might not lead to effective treatment. Relevance to Practice Encourages the use of multiple psychiatrists and tools in diagnosis. Recognizes the influence of individual and systemic factors on diagnosis. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Factors Influencing Diagnosis Clinical Biases Diagnosis influenced by gender, socioeconomic status, and ethnicity. Confirmation bias: Clinicians may interpret symptoms to fit expectations/stereotypes. o Study: Temerlin (1970) ▪ Psychologists labeled a healthy man as "psychotic" after hearing a respected psychologist's comment. ▪ 60% diagnosed him as psychotic; 0% of control group did. Gender Bias in Diagnosis Women diagnosed with depression 2-3x more often. Possible explanations: o Hormonal factors: Some link between estrogen and cortisol (e.g., Vamvakopoulos & Chrousos, 1993). o Social stressors: Brown & Harris (1978) – women face more stress due to social hierarchies. o Overdiagnosis theory: Amenson & Lewinsohn (1981) – no empirical support for overdiagnosis. o Study: Swami (2012) ▪ Participants attributed symptoms of depression more to "Kate" than "Jack," showing gender stereotyping. Cultural Bias in Diagnosis Cultural norms influence symptom expression and clinician interpretation. Study: Li-Repac (1980) o Chinese therapists rated Chinese patients as less depressed & more competent than white therapists did. o Cultural understanding affects perception and diagnosis. Symptoms differ: o Individualistic cultures – emotional symptoms (e.g., sadness). o Collectivist cultures – physical symptoms (e.g., headaches, fatigue). Socioeconomic Bias in Diagnosis Poverty linked to more stress and mental illness (e.g., Midtown Manhattan Study, 1961). Johnstone (1989): o Lower-class patients given more severe diagnoses, longer hospital stays, and drug treatments over therapy. Vulnerability models: Lower socioeconomic status increases exposure to stress and reduces protective factors. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Ethics in Diagnosis Key Ethical Issues: 1. Validity and Reliability Concerns: o Invalid diagnoses lead to ineffective treatments (e.g., unnecessary medication/therapy). o Problem remains unresolved, prolonging patient suffering. 2. Labeling and Stigmatization: o Study by Langer & Abelson (1974): ▪ Diagnosis influences perception (e.g., patient vs. job applicant stereotypes).  o Stigmatization linked to discrimination, but not always present. o Gove & Fain (1973): ▪ Majority found diagnosis improved social relationships and coping ability. ▪ Limitation: Recall bias (participants were "former" patients). o Doherty (1975): ▪ Rejecting the mental illness label correlated with greater recovery. o Warner et al. (1989): ▪ Improvement tied more to mastery over life than labeling. 3. Confidentiality: o Diagnoses should be private unless harm to self/others is likely. o Case of Andreas Lubitz: ▪ Co-pilot of Germanwings Flight 9525, had untreated depression. ▪ Raises questions about when to notify employers of mental health conditions. 4. Informed Consent: o Ethical use of patients in diagnostic research (e.g., experiments, case studies). o Studies must benefit diagnostic processes and patient care. Positive Effects of Research on Ethics: Rosenhan’s Study: o Improved mental hospital admissions and follow-up care. Studies on culture, gender, and class: o Increased awareness to reduce misdiagnosis. Public Perceptions (Crisp et al., 2000): Common Beliefs: o Mental health problems linked to danger or personal choice.  o Difficult to interact with those facing mental health challenges. Anti-stigma campaigns combat these biases (e.g., "Time for Change," “Bring Change 2 Mind”). Activity: Explore anti-stigma campaigns, and create a positive awareness poster/video. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Depressive Disorders Types of Depression: 1. Situational Depression: o Response to specific life events (e.g., divorce, death). o Temporary, with recovery expected over time. 2. Chronic Stress and Depression: o Associated with long-term circumstances. o Not all individuals under stress develop depressive disorders. 3. Unexplained Depression: o No clear environmental cause. o Linked to genetic, neurochemical, psychological, or lifestyle factors. o Hasler (2010): Depression results from multiple interacting factors. Diagnosis: Major depressive disorder requires: o Duration: At least two weeks. o Key Symptoms: Depressed mood or loss of interest/pleasure. o Additional Symptoms: ≥4 symptoms, e.g., insomnia, loss of energy, appetite disturbance, suicidal thoughts, concentration issues. Prevalence: Statistics: o Depression & anxiety: 1/3 of UK psychiatric hospital admissions (Thompson et al., 2004).  o 2–3 times more common in women. o Higher among lower socio-economic groups and young adults. Recurrence: o 80% experience additional episodes. o Average of 4 episodes (3–4 months each). o 12% develop chronic depression (~2 years duration). Symptoms (ABC'S Framework): Affective: Guilt, sadness, lack of enjoyment. Behavioral: Passivity, lack of initiative. Cognitive: Negative thoughts, low self-esteem, suicidal ideation, hopelessness, difficulty concentrating. Somatic: Energy loss, insomnia/hypersomnia, weight changes, reduced libido. Factors Influencing Depression: 1. Biological: o Genetics and neurochemical imbalances. 2. Cognitive: o Negative schemas and processing patterns. 3. Sociocultural: o Stressors and cultural influences. Key Considerations: Differentiating between "the blues" and major depression. Symptoms must impair normal activities (e.g., work, relationships). ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Biological Approach to Depression 1. Genetic Explanations: Twin Studies:  o Kendler et al. (2006): ▪ MZ twins: Female 44%, Male 31%. ▪ DZ twins: Female 16%, Male 11%. o Indicates genetic predisposition, higher in women. Meta-Analysis (Sullivan et al., 2000): o Genes account for ~1/3 of depression cases. o Shared environmental factors impact children more than adults. o Depression results from several interacting genes + risk factors. Genetic Mapping: o Human Genome Project: 11 genetic markers linked to Major Depressive Disorder. o Cai et al. (2015): Found specific genetic sequences tied to depression. 2. Serotonin Hypothesis: Lower serotonin levels linked to depression symptoms: OCD, impulsivity, mood swings, insomnia. Caspi et al. (2003): Interaction between 5-HTT gene and stressful events increases depression risk. SSRIs: o Increase serotonin levels but delayed efficacy (2–4 weeks). o ~60% respond with 50% symptom reduction; 80% stop medication within a month. 3. Neurogenesis Theory: Depression linked to reduced neurogenesis, especially in the hippocampus. Over-secretion of cortisol (HPA-axis hyperactivity) reduces serotonin, dopamine, and neurogenesis. Evidence: o Smaller hippocampi in depressed individuals (Videbech & Ravnkilde, 2004).  o Antidepressants (e.g., SSRIs) increase hippocampal neurogenesis (Malberg et al., 2000). 4. Evaluation: Strengths: o Strong support from twin studies and genetic research. o Drug treatments based on neurotransmitter regulation have improved lives. o Acknowledges biological-environmental interactions. Limitations: o Correlational research (no causation, bidirectional ambiguity). o Treatment Aetiology Fallacy: Treatment success ≠ direct cause. o Cannot fully explain cultural and cognitive symptom variations. 5. Conclusion: Depression is complex, influenced by genetic, neurochemical, and environmental factors. More research is needed to clarify causal pathways and improve treatments. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Cognitive Approach to Depression Key Ideas Depressed mood linked to negative cognition. Depression influenced by interpretation of life events. Cognitive distortions and irrational beliefs increase depression vulnerability. Aaron Beck's Cognitive Theory Negative Cognitive Triad: Negative views of self, world, future. Negative Schemas: Formed from early adverse experiences (e.g., family problems, social rejection). Cognitive Biases:  o Arbitrary Inference: Conclusions without evidence. o Dichotomous Thinking: All-or-nothing judgments. o Exaggeration (Magnification): Overestimating negative events. o Overgeneralization: Applying one event to all. o Personalization: Assuming negative events target oneself. o Selective Abstraction: Focusing on negatives while ignoring positives. Supporting Studies Alloy et al. (1999): o Longitudinal study: Negative cognitive group had 17% depression onset vs. 1% in positive group. Joiner et al. (1996): o Students with negative thoughts + poor performance = ↑ depressive symptoms. Rumination & Depression Rumination: Overthinking feelings/causes (Nolen-Hoeksema, 2000). o Linked to severity/duration of depression. o Combination with negative cognitive styles worsens symptoms. Brain Research (Farb et al., 2011) Relapse linked to medial prefrontal cortex activity. Rumination = predictor of depressive relapse. Suggests mindfulness as a preventive strategy. Mindfulness Evidence Definition (APA): Observing present experiences without judgment. Why Effective:  o Cognitive: Interrupts rumination; fosters positive thought patterns. o Biological: Reduces brain activity tied to negative processing. Evaluation of Cognitive Explanations Strengths: Supported by longitudinal/prospective research. Effective treatment applications (e.g., CBT). Explains gender differences (e.g., rumination prevalence). Limitations: Correlation ≠ causation (bidirectional ambiguity). Treatment-Aetiology Fallacy: Treatment success ≠ cause. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Sociocultural Approach to Depression Core Concept Focuses on environmental stressors and community resources. A holistic approach emphasizing interaction between biological and social factors. Vulnerability Model (Brown & Harris, 1978) Study: Surveyed 458 women in London. o 8% clinically depressed in the past year. o 90% experienced adverse life events (e.g., loss, abuse). o Suggests interplay between environmental stressors and depression. Key Factors: 1. Protective Factors: Reduce risk (e.g., close relationships, strong community). 2. Vulnerability Factors: Increase risk (e.g., early maternal loss, unemployment). 3. Provoking Agents: Acute/ongoing stress.  Supports the diathesis-stress model (interaction of predisposition and environment). Application: Explains gender and class differences in depression prevalence. Research & Findings 1. Hays, Turner & Coates (1992): o Gay men with HIV faced faster disease progression when lacking protective factors. 2. Cultural Stress Measurement (Holmes & Rahe): o Smaller consistent stressors can affect mental health more than major life events. Cultural Models of Depression 1. Parker, Cheah & Roy (2001): o Malaysian Chinese: 60% sought help for somatic symptoms (e.g., fatigue). o Australian Caucasians: 13% prioritized somatic issues, focusing more on mood/cognition. o Differences in reported symptoms, not necessarily experienced symptoms. 2. Kirmayer (2001): o Cultures create explanatory models for mental disorders. o Westernization shifts cultural perceptions of disorders (e.g., Japan). Strengths Supports biological evidence on stress. Accounts for cultural/gender differences. Highlights biological-environment interaction. Limitations  Stress Measurement: Validity issues (e.g., Social Readjustment Rating Scale). Cultural Models: Descriptive but lack causal explanation. Research Issues: o Cross-cultural studies are challenging. o Often correlational, lacking causation. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Prevalence of Disorders Understanding Prevalence Rates Prevalence: % of a population with a disorder at a specific time (e.g., 4.4% of the world’s population has depression). Incidence: New cases of a disorder within a timeframe (e.g., 16.2M adults with depression in the U.S. in 2016). Lifetime Prevalence: % of population that has had the disorder at any point (e.g., 20.6% for major depression in U.S. adults). Issues with Prevalence Rates 1. Cross-Cultural Variations: Differences in symptom expression lead to unreliable diagnoses across cultures. o Kleinman (2004): Chinese depressed individuals report physical symptoms over emotional ones. 2. Measurement Approaches: o Etic: Standardized checklists miss cultural specifics (underreporting). o Emic: Using culturally relevant symptoms risks misattribution. Changes in Prevalence Over Time 1. Data Collection: Improved methods (e.g., better diagnostic tools) or shifts in norms increase rates. 2. Stigma Reduction: Less stigma → More reported cases (e.g., U.S. teens’ depression rates rising).  3. Globalization: Cultural behaviors adapt to global influence (e.g., Hong Kong anorexia post-1990s). 4. Healthcare Policies: Accessibility to mental health services impacts statistics (e.g., fewer schizophrenia hospitalizations ≠ lower prevalence). Factors Influencing Rates Environmental Stress: Triggers can vary (e.g., genocide impacts mental health; economic crises don’t always increase prevalence). Cultural Norms: Societal views on mental illness can shape symptom manifestation and diagnoses. Barriers to Accurate Data 1. Underreporting: Stigma around mental illness. 2. Misdiagnosis & Comorbidity: Disorders with overlapping symptoms lead to inaccuracies. 3. Changing Criteria: Evolving diagnostic standards (e.g., DSM revisions). 4. Healthcare Inequality: Disparities in access to care. 5. Cultural Expression: Non-Western cultures express distress differently, challenging Western models. Globalization & Mental Disorders Anorexia in Hong Kong: Rise influenced by Western media and norms (e.g., focus on body image, A4 challenge). Pharmaceutical Ads: Advertising in Japan led to increased depression diagnoses via accessible SSRIs. Studying Prevalence – Importance 1. Public Health: Allocating resources for mental health services. 2. Treatment Access: Identifying trends to reduce disease burden. 3. Awareness: Reducing stigma, promoting help-seeking behavior. Debate on Drug Ads Pros: Educates public, reduces stigma, promotes early treatment.  Cons: Encourages unnecessary treatments, raises costs, targets vulnerable groups. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Treatment of Disorders Essential Understandings Etiology-Based Treatments: Treatments align with biological, cognitive, and sociocultural theories of a disorder's origins. Influencing Variables: Culture and gender significantly impact treatment approaches. Assessment Challenges: Evaluating treatment effectiveness is complex and often inconclusive. Ethical Considerations: Ethics are vital in treating psychological disorders. Role of Diagnosis Psychiatrists must distinguish typical emotions (e.g., sadness) from clinical disorders (e.g., depression). Diagnosis aims to implement effective treatment. Historical Approaches Psychoanalysis: Freud's theory; disorders rooted in the mind treated via "talk therapy." Biomedical Advances: Neuroscience and brain imaging led to a biological focus on treatment. Criticism: Baldessarini (2014): Treating disorders solely as biological issues is limited; an interactionist approach is more effective. Contemporary Treatments Biopsychosocial Model: Combines drug therapy, individual therapy (e.g., cognitive), group therapy, and addressing environmental risk factors. Terminology: o Biological perspective → uses "patient." o Psychological perspective → uses "client." Reflection Does calling someone a "patient" vs. a "client" affect interactions with the psychiatrist? Terminology may influence perceptions of agency and the therapeutic relationship. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Depression: Biological Treatments Biomedical Approach Assumes depression is caused by biological malfunctions; drugs restore chemical balance. Antidepressants regulate neurotransmitters (e.g., serotonin, dopamine, noradrenaline). SSRIs (e.g., Prozac) block serotonin reuptake, increasing serotonin in the synapse. Prescription Trends High usage: Over 1 in 10 Americans (2005-2008) used antidepressants (Pratt et al., 2011). 2010: Second most prescribed drug; $10 billion in costs. Effectiveness Goal: Symptom relief, positive response = improvement; remission = near absence of symptoms. Geddes et al. (2003): Antidepressants effective in treating depression and preventing relapse. Drugs reduce hospitalization for psychological disorders. Limitations Side Effects: Nausea, weight gain, insomnia, sexual issues, dizziness, anxiety. Uncertain Mechanism: Drugs act quickly on neurotransmitters but take weeks for therapeutic effect. Reductionism: Neglects social/psychological causes (e.g., poverty, stress).  Dependence: High relapse risk after discontinuation; withdrawal symptoms common. o Hollon et al. (2005): 76% relapse after drug withdrawal vs. 31% after CBT. Ethical Concerns Consent required unless in emergencies (e.g., suicide risk). Informed consent: Clients must know benefits and drawbacks. Overprescription risks harm; limited validity in short-term clinical trials. Diagnosis validity is critical but often lacks thorough testing or psychiatric input. Strengths of Drug Therapy Quicker results than psychological therapies. Reduces institutionalization, enabling outpatient care. Facilitates psychological therapy participation. Limitations of Drug Therapy High relapse rates after discontinuation. Neglects coping/social skill development. Risk of addiction, withdrawal, and adverse effects (iatrogenic effects). Potential negative interactions with other drugs or foods. Critical Thinking DTC Advertising: Weigh pros/cons of marketing drugs directly to consumers. Nootropic Drugs: Consider risks (e.g., side effects, dependency) before use. Should drug prescriptions prioritize long-term effects and ethical practices? ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Depression: Psychological Treatments General Overview Psychotherapy: Personal, face-to-face, tailored approach focusing on life situation and unhealthy thought patterns. Can be stand-alone or combined with medication for severe depression.  Effectiveness: Shown to work for many, highly individualized. Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy (CBT) Definition: Combines cognitive (thought-focused) and behavioral (action-focused) therapies. Focus: Current symptoms, unhealthy thought/behavior patterns, not past events. Structure: ~12-20 weekly sessions + daily practice. Methods: o Cognitive Restructuring: Identifying and challenging faulty thoughts. o Validity Testing: Providing evidence to challenge irrational beliefs. o Cognitive Rehearsal: Imagining past issues and practicing solutions. o Homework: Diaries, readings, trying out strategies. Aims: 1. Change faulty thoughts and behaviors. 2. Develop coping and problem-solving strategies. 3. Improve communication/social skills, encourage rewarding activities. 4. Teach stress-coping mechanisms (e.g., mindfulness). Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy (MBCT) Definition: Combines CBT with mindfulness practices (meditation, acceptance). Goals: o Let go of negative patterns, focus on the present. o Reduce psychological stress and prevent relapses. Research Evidence: o Kuyken et al. (2008): Relapse rate lower in MBCT group (47%) vs control (60%).  o Segal et al. (2010): MBCT prevents recurrence of depression, similar to medication. Strengths No side effects, reduces relapse risk. Skills learned empower clients (coping, self-awareness). Personal, supportive relationship with therapist critical to success. Limitations 1. Not always suitable: Takes time, unsuitable for suicidal or severely depressed clients. 2. Focus on symptoms: Doesn't address past trauma or biological causes. 3. Directive therapy: Potential therapist bias (cultural/gender). ATL: Research Discuss psychoanalytic therapies (Freud) and potential issues (False Memory Syndrome). ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Developing as a Learner Key Understandings Physical and cognitive development occur simultaneously. Cognitive development follows universal stages. Development results from interaction with the environment. Developmental Processes 1. Maturation (hard-wired behaviors): o First 3 months: Smiling, tracking objects, gripping, head raising. o Next 3 months: Rolling over, babbling, laughing, sitting with support.  2. Learning: o Behavioral/cognitive changes through experience. o Interactionist approach: Biological, cognitive, and sociocultural factors contribute. Research Methods Naturalistic: Observations, interviews (low control, prone to bias). Laboratory experiments: Higher control, less ecological validity. Case studies: In-depth, ethical concerns (e.g., abuse cases). Research Designs 1. Longitudinal: o Tracks the same cohort over time. o Strengths: Rich data, no participant variable effect. o Limitations: Costly, time-consuming, participant dropout. 2. Cross-sectional: o Compares different age groups at the same time. o Strengths: Short-term, less dropout. o Limitations: Participant variables may skew data. 3. Cross-sequential: o Combines both approaches. o Tracks different age groups longitudinally. o Advantage: Reduces cohort effects while providing rich data. Example: ALSPAC Study Large longitudinal study (Avon, UK, 1991-92).  Findings: o Parental interaction enhances school performance. o Early healthy diet correlates with higher intelligence. o Contact with fathers reduces adjustment issues in children of divorced parents. Limitations: Correlational data; no definitive cause-effect conclusions. This interactionist approach highlights the combined role of nature and nurture in shaping development. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Cognitive Development (Piaget) Cognitive development: Study of how thinking, problem-solving, language, perception, and processing develop. Piaget's key ideas: o Children think differently from adults ("active scientists"). o Learning happens through interaction with the environment. o Development follows universal cognitive stages. Stages of Development: o Sensorimotor (0–2 years): Knowledge through senses/actions. Object permanence (8–24 months). ▪ Baillargeon: Infants (3.5 months+) show earlier object permanence than Piaget claimed. o Pre-operational (2–7 years): Symbolic thinking. Egocentrism and lack of conservation. ▪ Piaget & Inhelder: Egocentrism (Three Mountain Task). ▪ Hughes: Alternative "policeman task" shows earlier loss of egocentrism (by age 4). ▪ Li et al.: Conservation development tied to education.  o Concrete operational (7–12 years): Logical thinking with concrete problems. o Formal operations (12+ years): Abstract/hypothetical reasoning (depends on education). Applications: o Piaget’s theory influenced education (developmentally appropriate teaching, child-centered learning). Strengths: o First comprehensive cognitive theory. o Widely supported by research and cross-cultural evidence. o Influenced education and child psychology. Limitations: o Underestimated social learning (role of instruction). o Language-dependent, less age-appropriate tasks. o Overestimated stage ages, lacked explanation for stage progression. Piaget’s ideas remain foundational but need supplementing with social and cultural insights (e.g., Vygotsky). ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Cognitive Development: Vygotsky Key Idea: Cognitive development cannot be understood without considering social environment & culture. o Culture provides knowledge and teaches how to think. o Interaction with others develops cultural tools to understand the world. Cultural Tools: Implicit & explicit cultural norms transferred via: 1. Imitation 2. Direct Instruction 3. Collaborative Learning Vygotsky’s Core Concepts 1. Learning Before Development: o Babies born with elementary mental functions (attention, sensation, memory, perception). o Culture transforms these into higher mental functions (problem-solving, thinking). 2. More Knowledgeable Other (MKO): o Children learn through guidance from parents, teachers, or peers. 3. Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD): o Gap between independent abilities and assisted performance. o Scaffolding: Support that improves competence in tasks slightly beyond ability. Supporting Research Tudge & Winterhoff (1993): Peer tutors most effective if well ahead of tutees & provide proper scaffolding. Nichols (1996): Collaborative group learning improved achievement & motivation over traditional instruction. Role of Language in Development Language: Vital for communication, thinking, and problem-solving. Private Speech: Talking aloud to guide actions (linked to social competence). o Ex: Winsler et al. (2003) found children who used private speech had better social skills. Stages of Language Development 1. Preintellectual Speech: Crying, babbling, gestures. 2. Autonomous Speech (12m): Invented words for objects.  3. Naïve Psychology (18–24m): Adult words connect with objects; simple requests. 4. Communicative & Egocentric Speech (3+ yrs): o Communicative speech: Expressing meaning to others. o Egocentric speech: Self-directed task guidance. o Inner Speech: Silent verbal thinking (advanced speech & thought link). Challenges to Vygotsky’s Theory Prior & Welling (2001): Young children didn’t benefit from reading aloud over silent reading; older children did. Contradicts internalized speech theory. Research on speech & learning is inconsistent. Vygotsky vs. Piaget Both: Children actively construct knowledge; biological maturation is important. Vygotsky: Emphasizes culture & language in development. Piaget: Focuses on universal stages. Strengths & Limitations of Sociocultural Theory Practical application: Scaffolding & collaborative learning in education. Holistic approach to development. Lacks empirical support for all aspects (e.g., language's role in development). Ethical Questions Case Study: Deb Roy studied his own son using tech to map language development. Ethical Concerns: Privacy & use of personal data in developmental studies. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Brain Development Theories – Key Notes: 1. Newborn Characteristics: o Inborn reflexes: sucking, grasping. o Basic sensory abilities & social interaction capacity. o Brain has trillions of nerve cells and synapses. o Neuroplasticity: ability for lifelong learning and change. 2. Theories of Brain Development: o Maturation Theory: ▪ Brain development due to genetic factors (innate modules). ▪ Development follows a predetermined, fixed sequence. ▪ Example: Gesell's "developmental clock," Lorenz's "critical periods." o Skill-Learning Hypothesis: ▪ Brain development driven by learning and environmental experience. ▪ Neuroplasticity plays a major role in childhood development (Draganski, Rozenzweig, etc.). 3. Maturation Theory Influence: o Lorenz: Imprinting in animals; attachment occurs during "critical periods." o Gesell: Fixed milestones, like walking, talking, thinking. o Studies suggest brain maturation links to development (vision, motor skills). o Critical period theory in visual development: Surgery can't fully fix vision if done too late (Le Grand, 2001). 4. Classic Study – Visual Development: o Hubel & Wiesel (1964): Studied kittens with blocked visual input. o Found critical periods for developing visual cortex cells (eye blocked = no response). 5. Developmental Changes: o Newborns show high limbic system activity (for social interactions).  o Between 6-9 months: Frontal lobes mature, better control over movement and learning. o 5-7 years: Frontal lobes help with complex behaviors (attention, self-control). 6. Why can't we remember before age 4? o Neurological Argument: Lack of hippocampus development. o Theoretical Argument: Lack of sense of self and memory organization until around age 4. 7. Brain Growth in Adolescence: o Continued myelinization and brain reorganization, especially in prefrontal cortex. o Changes lead to improved cognitive functions (abstract thinking, strategic planning). o Giedd (2004): Frontal cortex matures late (around age 20), influencing adolescent behavior. 8. Key Exam Points: o Brain develops from birth to early twenties. o Development from back (brainstem) to front (prefrontal cortex). o Development influenced by both genetics and environment. o Neuroplasticity: Environmental stimuli shape brain function. This summary emphasizes the theories of brain maturation, key developmental periods, and the interaction between genetics and environmental experiences in shaping human brain development. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Influences on Development: 1. Essential Understandings: o Social and cognitive development can be affected by environmental factors. o Childhood experiences may have a lifelong impact.  o Protective and risk factors shape resilience and overall development. 2. Factors Affecting Development: o Environmental and social factors include peers, play, socioeconomic status, and childhood trauma. o These factors influence both cognitive and social development. 3. Social Development: o Social development involves learning emotional and social skills throughout life. o Healthy social development is key to forming positive relationships (family, friends, etc.). ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Role of Peers and Play: 1. Play as Essential for Development: o Play is important for developing motor skills, morality, and theory of mind (understanding others' perspectives). o Play helps children develop cognitive and social skills. 2. Piaget and Vygotsky on Play: o Play follows cognitive development stages: ▪ Sensorimotor Stage: Practice play (repetition of mastered skills). ▪ Symbolic Play: Begins at age 2, using pretend behavior (e.g., imitating adults). ▪ Stage 1 (Ages 2-4): Imitating others. ▪ Stage 2 (Ages 4-7): Complex role-playing, exact imitation. ▪ Stage 3 (Ages 7-12): Storylines and reality-based roles. ▪ Around age 7, children focus on games with rules and competition. 3. Learning through Play: o Imitation leads to learning, but understanding may not be fully achieved (e.g., understanding jokes).  o Play is linked to language development and social skills (communication, empathy, problem-solving). 4. Types of Play: o Convergent play: One solution, like puzzle-solving. o Divergent play: Multiple solutions, like block play. o Pretend play: Linked to divergent thinking and creativity. 5. Peer Influence on Development: o Sociometric status affects social and cognitive development. Types of peer classifications: ▪ Accepted: Positive interaction, good behavior, high sociability, good academic outcomes. ▪ Rejected (Aggressive): Disruptive, poor control, poor academic outcomes. ▪ Rejected (Withdrawn): Timid, socially awkward, low self-esteem. ▪ Neglected: Solitary play, can make friends but prone to loneliness. 6. Culture and Play: o In some cultures (e.g., hunter-gatherers), play prepares children for adult roles (e.g., hunting, building). o Sharing and cooperation over competition in traditional societies. o Toys and play activities have an educational function in traditional societies. 7. Debate on Play and Development: o Studies show mixed results on whether play directly causes development in skills like creativity and problem-solving. o Lillard et al. (2013) found no clear evidence linking pretend play to cognitive development. o Real play is spontaneous and social relationships matter more than specific play activities. 8. Technology and Play:  o Debate on whether technology affects the development of traditional play behaviors. Some argue it harms development by limiting free play. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Poverty and Development (Developmental Psychology) Paul Krugman’s Argument: Poor children experience high stress hormones that impair brain development and cognitive functioning. 17.4% of U.S. children live below the poverty line; children born to poor families have a high risk of staying poor due to cognitive impairment. Risk Factors for Cognitive Development: o Stress, malnutrition, substance abuse, environmental toxins (e.g., high lead levels), community trauma, abuse, lack of education, and discrimination. Impact of Malnutrition: o Malnutrition limits learning abilities, making children less active and less socially engaged. Chronic undernourishment delays cognitive functions but can be improved with proper diet and stimulation. Protective Factors in Non-Poverty: o Balanced diet, education, low stress, healthcare, and financial support. Kar et al. (2008): o Malnourished children scored lower in cognitive tasks (attention, memory, etc.), but developmental delays are temporary, not permanent. Pollitt et al. (1995): o In Guatemala, children with nutritional supplements (Atole) performed better cognitively than those with a lower-calorie supplement (Fresco). Long- term benefits observed in adults who had Atole. Other Environmental Factors: o Lack of stimulation can hinder neural development (similar to Rosenzweig & Bennett's rat study). o Farah et al. (2008): Environmental stimulation and parental nurturing correlate with better cognitive development in middle-school children. Cognitive Load (Mani et al., 2013):  o Financial stress burdens cognitive capacity. Poorer participants showed lower cognitive performance when financial stress was made salient. o Field study with Indian sugarcane farmers showed cognitive improvement after harvest, when income levels were higher. Evaluation: o Poverty's impact is cumulative (positive and negative factors accumulate). o Research shows a complex relationship, but early adversity doesn't always define life outcomes (e.g., Werner & Smith's study on resilience). Methodological Considerations: o Poverty’s definition is relative. Most studies are correlational, and cause- effect relationships are unclear. o Small, non-representative samples limit generalizability. o Solutions, like free breakfast programs, have improved lives. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Trauma and Development: Short Form Notes Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs): Refers to abuse, neglect, and exposure to domestic violence. ACEs impact a child's development, with effects varying by age, gender, and duration. Two Effects of Trauma: 1. Physiological & Neurodevelopmental Effects: Impact brain and body development. 2. Psychosocial Development: Affects relationships and emotional well- being. Child Abuse Statistics: Over 3 million child abuse reports annually in the U.S., with 4-7 children dying every day due to abuse. Recovery from Abuse: With proper care and support, children can recover from abuse (e.g., Koluchova's case study of twins who thrived after adoption). Institutionalization Studies:  o René Spitz (Hospitalism): Found that institutionalized children showed delayed development and emotional impairments. o Dennis (1973): Found IQ differences in Lebanese orphanage children based on adoption age: adopted younger (under 2) performed better. Chugani et al. (2001): PET scans showed decreased brain activity (prefrontal cortex, hippocampus, amygdala) in adopted children from Romanian orphanages, suggesting early deprivation affects cognitive and behavioral function. Cognitive & Emotional Effects of Abuse: o Carrion et al. (2009): Found children with PTSD (from abuse/violence) had poorer memory and less hippocampal activity. o Manic Stress Effects: High cortisol from trauma impacts brain function, especially memory. Rutter et al. (2007) Romanian Orphan Study: o Longitudinal study of 144 Romanian orphans adopted into the UK. Found cognitive deficits related to the duration of institutionalization, especially if adoption occurred after 2 years of age. o Key Findings: Longer institutionalization = more severe cognitive impairment, attachment issues. o Intervention before 6 months showed better outcomes in cognitive development. Kreppner et al. (1999): Study of Romanian orphans adopted in the UK showed poorer social development in orphans compared to British adoptees. Social and cognitive effects worsened with longer exposure to deprivation. Strengths of Rutter’s Study: o Early adoption (most before 2 years), severe deprivation in institutions, ethnically similar adoptive parents. o Clear response-dose relationship (longer deprivation = worse outcomes). Conclusions on Recovery & Trauma: Early intervention, especially before 6 months, can reduce trauma’s long-term effects on children. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Notes on Resilience Definition of Resilience: o Luthar et al (2000): Resilience is overcoming adversity or doing better than expected when faced with challenges like poverty or trauma. o Rutter (1990): Resilience is maintaining adaptive behavior despite serious risk factors. Risk Factors: o Conditions that hinder development and may lead to developmental delays, psychological disorders, etc. Examples: poverty, family conflict, substance abuse. Protective Factors: o Attributes or conditions that help individuals cope effectively with stress. Examples: intelligence, supportive relationships, socio-economic resources. Developmental Tasks: o Involves forming bonds with caregivers, regulating emotions, showing initiative, and interacting well with others. o Environmental and temperamental factors can affect resilience. Key Study - Werner and Smith (2001): o Kauai Longitudinal Study: Studied 698 children over 40 years. o Found that 30% had multiple risk factors but 1/3 grew into competent adults due to protective factors like a close bond with one emotionally stable person. o Education, military service, stable marriage, and religious conversion promoted resilience. Resilience Research: o Increasing protective factors can reverse adverse outcomes. o Parenting and social support are key to resilience. Programs focusing on these are effective in preventing developmental problems. Biological Aspects:  o Resilience may be innate and shaped by environmental factors (e.g., oxytocin, neuropeptide Y). o Studies like Coan et al (2006) show that social support can reduce stress responses in the brain. o Neuropeptide Y linked to stress reduction and resilience. Morgan et al (2000) showed high NPY levels in soldiers less affected by stress. Risk Factors: o Multiple risk factors (e.g., poverty, isolation) may lead to psychopathology. Interventions: o Strategies like home visits, after-school programs, and teen parent education help build resilience. o Early interventions in both developed and developing countries improve outcomes (e.g., UNICEF programs). Biological Evidence: o Oxytocin reduces stress; neuropeptide Y helps manage anxiety. The study of these factors is still developing. Practical Example (Oliver & Skateistan): o Skateistan uses skateboarding to empower Afghan youth, especially girls, despite