Cognitive Psychology Overview

Key Concepts in Psychology

• Psychology is the scientific study of the mind and behavior, focusing on systematic research to understand relationships.
• The scope of psychology is broad, encompassing life sciences, mental health, education, marketing, and more.
• Core areas of study include cognitive processes, physiology, emotions, attitudes, and behavior.

Key Approaches in Psychology

• Biological approach: Focuses on genetics, brain function, and hormones.
• Cognitive approach: Examines memory, thinking, and reasoning.
• Sociocultural approach: Considers the impact of culture and environment.

Research and Theories in Psychology

• Psychological theories summarize and explain phenomena, predicting behaviors and evaluated for testability, empirical support, and application.
• Empirical evidence relies on replicable research using diverse methods, like experiments and observations.

Nature vs. Nurture

• Behavior emerges from an interaction of biological and environmental factors.

Good Theory Criteria (TEACUP)

• Testable: Can be refuted with evidence.
• Empirical: Supported by replicable data.
• Applicable: Proven effective in various situations.
• Clear: Defined and measurable concepts.
• Unbiased: Free from personal bias.
• Predictive: Identifies trends in populations, not individuals.

Psychology and the Scientific Debate

• Psychology uses scientific methods but lack a universally agreed core, leading to debates about its scientific standing.

Careers in Psychology

• Psychology careers are varied, including clinical, forensic, educational, and sports psychology.

Mindsets and Motivation (Dweck)

• Fixed mindset: Intelligence is static and challenges are to be avoided.
• Growth mindset: Intelligence is malleable, promoting persistence and effort.
• Evidence: Growth mindsets enhance motivation and learning outcomes.

Vocabulary

• Cognitive Processes: Memory, perception, reasoning
• Physiology: Biological systems influencing behavior
• Attitudes: Positive/negative feelings about things
• Emotions: Interaction of physiological and cognitive responses

Quantitative Research Methods

• Psychologists support or refute hypotheses; they do not prove them.
• Quantitative research focuses on objective measurement and statistical analysis.
• Operationalizing variables ensures validity and clarity in measurements.
• Extraneous variables can undermine study validity.

Experimental Research

• Goal: Establishing cause-and-effect relationships.
• Independent Variable (IV): Manipulated variable by the researcher.
• Dependent Variable (DV): Measured outcome from manipulation
• Example: Testing if noise affects memory recall. (IV: Noise (e.g., loud music); DV: Words recalled)
• Key characteristics include control, standardization, and random allocation.

Hypotheses

• Experimental hypothesis: Predicts the effect of IV on DV.
• Null hypothesis: States no significant effect of IV on DV, suggesting changes are due to chance.

Field Experiments

• Conducted in real-world settings with less control over extraneous variables.
• Challenges include ethical considerations and reduced replicability.

Quasi and Natural Experiments

• These lack random allocation
• Groups are based on traits, not randomly assigned.
• Example: Studying the effects of depression on behavior.

Correlational Studies

• Examines relationships between variables without manipulating variables.
• Positive correlation means variables rise/fall together.
• Negative correlation means one rises, the other falls.
• Bidirectional ambiguity exists when uncertainty of which variable influenced the other, or if a third variable influences both.

Validity Threats

• Demand characteristics: Participants alter behavior to fit the study.
• Researcher bias: Researchers' expectations influence the study.
• Participant variability: Differences between participants impacting results.
• Artificiality: Unnatural study environment reduces real-world relevance.

Qualitative Research Methods

• Emphasizes understanding reasons, opinions, and motivations behind behaviors.
• Focuses on subjective experiences rather than cause-and-effect relationships.
• Conducted in natural settings; adopts an inductive approach.

Data Collection Methods

• Interviews: Structured, unstructured, semi-structured
• Observations: Naturalistic, participant, and covert observations
• Surveys: Use scales like Likert, gather large datasets.
• Case studies: Detailed investigation of unique cases.

Cognitive Processing

• Mental representations guide behavior.

Memory and Decision-Making

• Models help understand complex processes, like memory and decision-making.
• Humans process information from sensory input to behavioral output, despite being a "black box."
• Cognitive psychology studies internal mental processes, expanding from behaviorism.
• Assumptions of the cognitive approach involve mental representations as software for brain hardware.

Schema Theory

• Schemas are mental frameworks derived from experience, organizing and interpreting information.
• Schemas simplify reality; influence how we encode, store, and retrieve memories.

Cognitive Misers

• People conserve mental energy through cognitive strategies.
• Reasons of limited processing, including motivation, knowledge, resource limitations.

Memory Distortion

• Memory is reconstructive, impacted by leading questions and post-event information.
• Eyewitness testimony is susceptible to memory distortion and inaccurate details.
• The misinformation effect distorts accounts due to outside information exposure, or misinformation.
• False memories are possible from suggestions, as shown in the Loftus & Pickerell studies.

Flashbulb Memories

• Vivid, detailed memories of emotionally significant events.
• Special mechanism hypothesis suggests a unique memory system for such events.
• Limitations in accuracy and influences of external information are possible threats to validity.

Cultural Influences on Memory

• Cultural values affect how memories are encoded and recalled, and personal significance.
• Memory and accuracy is influenced by cultural contexts and values.

Memory and the Holocaust

• Holocaust survivors' experiences demonstrate the potential for memory distortion.
• Inconsistencies in survivor testimonies highlight how memories can be subjective.
• Collective memories of events can be shaped through discussions and shared narratives which influence personal memory formation.

Biases in Decision Making

• Cognitive biases can impair rational thinking.
• Examples include anchoring bias, peak-end rule, framing effect, and more.

Emotion and Decision Making

• Emotions influence decision-making processes, especially in high-stakes situations.
• The somatic marker hypothesis suggests emotions play a key role in decisions.
• Emotions can influence mental processes and decision-making which can be affected by cultural biases and mental health conditions.
• Emotion has been shown to be a key factor in decision-making, potentially influenced by biases and heuristics.

Digital World Effects on Cognition

• Technology use and exposure impacts information processing and memory, also having both positive and negative impacts on users.

Ethics of Online Research

• Important ethical considerations are present in using digital and online platforms to conduct research, including informed consent, biases, and deception of research participants.

Memory in the Digital World

• The rise of technology as a memory substitute (e.g. phones, cloud systems) changes how humans naturally structure memories, impacting ability to recall data; Google Effect, and Transactive Memory System.

Technology and Thinking

• Some studies suggest negative impacts on thinking while others offer positive impacts, like improved problem-solving skills.

Self-Concept vs Self-Esteem

• Self-concept is how we perceive ourselves, while self-esteem is our emotional evaluation of that perception.
• Social comparison theory shows how we compare our self to others, which can negatively influence self-esteem.
  • Research has shown a correlation between increased social media use and a decrease in self-esteem.

Ethical Considerations in Research

• Ethical considerations in research include informed consent, deception, no debriefing, and the potential for researcher bias.
• Other concerns include the use of data and appropriate treatment, in addition to ensuring the safety of the participants.

Diagnosis in Abnormal Psychology

• Diagnosis process involves self-reported data, observations, and tests, with data triangulation and clinical interviews for thorough assessment.
• Conceptual definitions of abnormality (statistical deviation, social norms, mental health deviation) are subject to cultural variation.
• Diagnoses are influenced by cultural considerations, biases, socioeconomic factors, and more.

Treatment of Disorders

• Etiology-based treatments are aligned with biological, cognitive, and sociocultural theories.
• Culture and other influences heavily affect treatment approaches and efficacy.
• Assessment challenges exist in thoroughly and accurately evaluating effectiveness of treatments used.
• Ethical considerations are critical, including proper consent and limitations in practice.

Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT)

• Focuses on current problems - addresses unhealthy thought and behavior patterns, not past events.

Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy (MBCT)

• Integrates mindfulness techniques within cognitive behavioral therapy.
• Focuses on reducing psychological stress and preventing relapse events.

Psychological Treatments

• Psychotherapy focuses on individuals directly and personalized strategies, which can also be used in conjunction with medications, for those experiencing a depressive disorder.

Brain Development Research

• Brain development is ongoing throughout life - from birth into early adulthood.
• Early childhood development involves stages of maturation and development including but not limited to physical milestones, social interactions, emotional development, language, and the development of a theory of mind.

Resilience

• Resilience is the ability to cope, adapt, and overcome challenges.
• Risk and protective factors shape a person's resilience.
• Early interventions and support systems that foster resilience are important in helping children develop.

Theory of Mind

• Understanding one's and others' mental states, enabling understanding of motivation and behavior.
• Crucial for social interactions and developing empathy.

Cognitive Development - Piaget

• Development takes place through universal stages:
  • Sensorimotor
  • Preoperational
  • Concrete Operational
  • Formal Operations
  • There are criticisms of the concept of stages in modern cognitive development.

Cognitive Development - Vygotsky

• Emphasizes the role of social interaction and culture in cognitive development.

Factors Affecting Development

• Environmental stressors.
• Social factors (peers, family, socioeconomic status, cultural norms).
• Protective or risk factors in development, shaping resilience or vulnerability.

This quiz explores various aspects of cognitive psychology, including how humans process information, the impact of schemas on memory, and the relationship between cognition and behavior. It also addresses key concepts like cognitive misers and mindfulness, along with research findings related to depression. Test your understanding of these essential topics in cognitive psychology!