Cognitive Development of Infants and Toddlers PDF

COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT: INFANT AND TODDLERS Friday, January 24, 2025 1:22 PM PIAGET – theorist Considered the "father" of dev psych Studied his own family ○ Observed when they made mistakes and took it as a learning opp Stages of dev Describes children as "little scientis...

COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT: INFANT AND TODDLERS Friday, January 24, 2025 1:22 PM PIAGET – theorist Considered the "father" of dev psych Studied his own family ○ Observed when they made mistakes and took it as a learning opp Stages of dev Describes children as "little scientists" who actively learn by observing and interacting with the world around them. SENSORIMOTOR Scheme: organized way of thinking/acting about events/objects/people ○ When I do this thing -> this happens ▪ Dropping pen -> it falls ▪ Putting things in things ▪ Going to place -> gets food -> restaurant! Mental rep: internalized enduring scheme^ or words/concepts ○ We form these after understanding the schemes that we built upon Dev changes through cognitive equilibrium Adaptations ○ Cognitive equilibrium when changing schemes through repetitive interactions with the environment ( habituality) ○ Assimilation ▪ Interprets through existing schemes ○ Accommodations ▪ Changes schemes in order to fit experiences 6 substages ( 0-24m* sequence) 1. Rigid use of reflexes 0-1m i. Doesn't have any control over whether or not they do it Grab or don't 2. Primary circular reactions 2-4m i. Doing something in the environment - usually with their own body ( sensory feedback) Kicking legs in cyclic motions 3. Secondary circular reactions ( 4-8m) i. Repeat actions with results from the environment Shaking a rattle -> makes sound -> repeat 4. Coordinate and combine schemes (8-12m) i. goal-directed behaviour ii. begins object permanence iii. imitates 5. Tertiary circular reactions (12-18m) i. Imitate ii. Deliberately vary actions to observe effects iii. Flexible 6. Mental representation (18-24m) i. Understand object permanence ii. Deferred imitation iii. Pretend play CURRENT APPROACH TO PIAGET? Abilities appear earlier Violation of expectation model ○ Object permanence ~2.5-6m ○ Why not pass Piaget's task at 8-9m ▪ Memory, planning, physical limitation ○ "magic" for babies ▪ Based on their reactions -> know if they understand certain things LIMITATIONS Infants can imitate earlier ~ 6-14m than in Piaget's model ○ P: 18m CURRENT CHILD COGNITION RESEARCH 1. Core knowledge systems 2. Information processing, cognitive neuroscience CORE KNOWLEDGE SYSTEMS Innate ( inborn/evolved) systems ○ Helps infants understand the world with little to no experience ○ Like the apps that come on our devices ▪ Has the ability to process the data, just need to add the information Object tracking Stares longer at the unexpected/unknown NUMBERS – flashing dots ~6m ○ If they are paying attention that they can tell that it's a different number on the screen ○ 8 vs 16 but not 8 vs 12 What does this show? ○ How rich a child's visual understanding is ○ Ex. Babies which have ^ number sense ( stared at the alt dot changes) showed that they had ^ understanding in math when they came back 3 years later Highly debated, not rep BELIEF VS EVIDENCE? Suspend "gut" Open to possibility that the mind can work differently ○ Qualitive vs quantitative differences INFORMATION PROCESSING/COGNITIVE NEUROSCIENCE Attention ○ Goldilocks principle ▪ Attend most at medium level of complexity ▪ Gradual rather than stages ▪ "just the right" level of complexity for the child Find things that captures attention and builds ability Memory ○ Encoding ▪ Processing/storage information in LT memory 0-2yr -> faster at encoding Learning ^ operant conditioning increase ( behaviour -> reward) ○ 2 days vs 2 weeks ○ Implicit ▪ Unconscious learning of a response or skill  ○ Explicit ▪ Measured by deferred imitation ▪ Improvements correspond to brain dev Categorization ○ Mental rep ○ Helps to organize the world ○ Tests with habituation tasks ○ Perceptual features ▪ Physical appearances Cats vs furniture ○ Language assists and shapes ▪ Birds vs airplanes ○ Utilization of conceptual categories ~14m Researchers look at these behaviours and if they are able to 'predict' future behaviours. BAYLEY SCALES OF INFANT DEVELOPMENT Commonly used measure of infant dev Measures ○ Attention ○ Habituation ○ Visual memory ○ Imitation ○ Problem-solving ○ Language skills LANGUAGE Phonology ( sounds ) ○ Phoneme: smallest unit of language ▪ ~40 in Eng ○ Morpheme: smallest unit that hold meaning, ▪ Words + pre/suffix ( ed, s, un ) Ex. Cup, book = words; cups = 2 morphemes Semantics ( meaning) Syntax (grammar/word order) AQUISITION/DEVELOPMENT ~2 days ○ Prefers listening to language that've already been exposed to 2-3m ○ Coos 6m ○ Starts to babble ○ Deaf/HOH: decrease vocal babble; will do nonsense signs if CG does sign language  9m ○ Understand some words ○ Uses body language ( gestures, points) ○ Distinguishes all phonemes until 9-12m in every language ▪ Decline in ability to distinguish phonemes in other languages ( if they only speak one language) 10-12m ○ Babbling in language ( exposed to) 12m ○ First words 18m ○ Know about ~50 words ○ Starts to use 2 word combinations 24m ○ ~300 words ○ Grammar Receptive -> productive ○ Understand before using SEGMENTING SPEECH Repetition Intonation + stress Statistical analysis INFANT – DIRECTED SPEECH Shorter sentences More articulated Repeated words/phrases More variety in pitch Limitation of infants speech by parents Exaggerated stress Pay more attention JOINT ATTENTION Ability to attend to what someone else is attending to ○ I look to the door -> you look to the door ~9m Look where someone else looks, unless eyes are closed "reflects the infant's understanding that others have goals and objectives" Faster language dev LEARNING WORD MEANINGS 6-12m ○ Understands – receptive language ○ First words ▪ Usually important people or objects Over-extension ○ Extending the meaning of a word too far for them to understand ▪ Using the adult meaning ○ Ex. Using dog for everything that has 4 legs Under-extension ○ Using word in more limited context than adult meaning ○ Ex. Using dog for just their dog; no one else has a dog Categorization errors/substitutes  ○ Maybe they can't remember SYNTAX Holophrases = single thoughts/ entire thoughts ○ Ex. Yes, no, cup, book etc. Telegraphic speech = Two or three words, essential ○ Ex. Give book, cookie me, etc. THEORIES OF LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT Behavioural = reinforcement and imitation Noam Chomsky ○ Language acquisition device ▪ Brain is hardwired to acquire language ▪ Progression of learning language follows a sequence that is similar throughout all cultures Language and brain ○ Left brain = speech sounds ○ Right brain = non speech sounds ○ Broca's area = production language ○ Wernicke's area= comprehension language ○ Aphasia = difficulty in producing/understanding language LANGUAGE AND ENVIRONMENT Deprivation – sensitive period ○ Genie: rescues 13 yrs, never syntax beyond ~2 ( confound?) ○ Deaf children deprived of sign language stall Recasting – improved grammar ○ Rephrasing the sentence the right way ▪ Ex. Child: me cookie; you: You want a cookie Amount of conversation ○ Less language exposure ○ Smaller vocab ○ Open-ended questions TV ○ Baby Einstein – doesn't help ○ Language amount – best way to learn language is in natural settings aka be around people talking -> interactive Sensitive period for 2nd language? ○ No sharp cutoff; earlier = better ▪ Better for syntax/vocab ○ Vocab remains plastic throughout life, syntax subject to pruning "Language is integral to thinking and culture" INDIGENOUS LANGUAGE In res schools, children = punished for using their own languages Many endangered in CA CTA in TRC ○ Language Important to support Indigenous languages ○ Funding, education, policy Physical Health and Development Friday, January 17, 2025 1:40 PM SLEEP Newborns ○ ~16-18hr/day ( 2-3hrs eat) ▪ Sleep/wake cycle evident ▪ Persistent need for food = assist rapid growth during this period ○ 50% REM ( brain) ▪ Do babies dream? Why so much REM? Sleeping at night ~6m Normal - ~3-5 yrs Will this dictate whether or not a person will be a night owl or morning person? Can we tell when they are a baby? SLEEP PRACTICES Co-sleeping ( in the bed/ room) ○ Not recommended ( Health Canada) ○ Common, cultural differences ○ Lots of debate about it Sleep safety ○ Shifts on stance: eg. Sleep on back – reduce SIDS -> flat skulls -> baby needs to have enough tummy time SIDS 0.03% ○ Risks ▪ Genetic/neurological defect correlated to breathing 2-4m Respiratory infection/fever/warm/cigarette ○ Prevention ▪ 'back to sleep', firm mattress, ventilation, chest/breast fed Swaddling – why do we do this? ( debatable) ○ Rec by hospital ○ Similar to the womb ○ Aren't waking themselves with uncontrollable movements ○ When do you stop swaddling NUTRITION Breast/chest-feeding + formula – history ○ More inclusive not everyone identifies with having breasts Public health rec: "exclusively breastfed for 6mo" ○ Infection/contaminants/physical-med ○ Continue for up to 2 yr + after solid food introduction Breast/chest feed, lactation, human-milk Non-birthing parent: induced lactation ○ Hormone therapy, pumping in prep Short-term ○ Less infections ▪ Respiration. GI, ear ○ Less allergies, SIDS ( esp low birth weight) ○ Potential benefits to lactator? Long term  ○ Diabetes, obesity, ^IQ? , socioeco status (SES) , health behavior/attitudes Confounding variable Skin to skin Human milk / act of closeness -> better health GROWTH AND NEURO GROWTH Identifying rate of growth patterns -> see concerns Canalization: Strong genetic control of development Catch–up growth: nutrition met -> grow spurt after deprivation ○ Child goes back to genetically predetermined growth pattern Growth and control 1. Cephalocaudal ( head to tail) i. Control over head before feet 2. Proximodistal ( center of body to limbs) i. Control over torso before control over arms What is cuteness? ○ Evolutionary psych ▪ Preference for "baby-like" features NEURO Brain size relative to adult ○ Rate of dev ▪ Newborn 25% -> 1yr 70% -> 2 yrs 80% Neuron: dendrites ( roots- where info comes in) , cell body ( keeps it alive) , axon ( sends message away) ○ Myelin shealth allows messages to travel from axon ○ Synapse: neurotransmitters Synaptogenesis: hundreds of thousands of synapses/m 18mo = 50% more synapses than adult Synaptic pruning = use it or lose it ○ Theres a lot of potential pathways but the ones which are being used the most get maintained + grown, ones who don't get used = bye bye Myelination: fatty coating of axon, 100x faster than electrical signal ○ At birth – brain stem, cerebellum then other parts of brain ○ Prefrontal -> early adulthood REFLEX ○ Fixed motor ○ Always occurs in response to specific stimulus ▪ Rooting ▪ Sucking ▪ Stepping Slow mo pattern of walking ▪ Grasping ▪ Moro ( startled by loud noise etc.) ○ Survival mechanisms ▪ In build in nature that humans have in order to keep us alive! ○ Disappear/ become voluntary MOTOR DEV Gross motor: uses the big muscles in the body ○ Roll over, sit Fine motor: uses the smaller muscles in the body  ○ Cephalocaudal pattern Reach and grasp ○ Strategies ▪ Slow vs vigorous Crawl ○ Variety of types ▪ Depends on exp ( tummy time) , culture Walk ○ ~14k/day, fall 100x Bowel/bladder control ○ Positive reinforcements/encouragement vs punishment ○ ~24-36mo ▪ Training can be earlier but it takes more longer Dynamic systems ○ Learns how to do something by themselves after a few times; will readjust if changes are happening ○ Brain maturity ○ Body movement capacity ○ Goals of the child ○ Environmental supports ▪ Furniture, humans etc. ○ Interactive and self organizing ADOLPH VIDEO – CLIFF EXPERIMENT Crawling -> sitting -> cruising -> walking ○ Learning how to perceive their environment SENSATION AND PERCEPTION Sensation ○ Sensory organ that receives signals Perception ○ How they organizes and interprets information What's available at birth? ○ Touch ▪ Rooting, kangaroo care, pain, habituation ○ Taste and smell ▪ Amniotic fluids Learns flavours :Sweet, sour, salty, bitter, umami ▪ Odor of caregivers VISION Newborn: 20/150-600 ○ Vision = immature rn ~6m approaches adult ability Preference for contrast, patterns, colours, faces ○ Contrast/ contours of face ○ @1-2m they start to look more at the features of the faces Even at 12hrs old -> preference for CG's face over strangers 5m recognize facial expressions ○ Prefers happy faces DEPTH PERCEPTION ○ Cues ▪ Moton ▪ Stereopsis Merging two perspectives from both eyes to create depth perception  ▪ Pictorial cues Things blocking things, textures, linear perspectives, sizes Easier to see in pictures ○ Developed @ 5-7m ○ Visual cliff experiment ▪ Adolph visual cliff experiment Prenatal, Birth, and Newborn Friday, January 10, 2025 3:01 PM Prenatal stages, birth TW: birth, miscarriages, abortions, infertility, death, illness etc. Population research vs individual ( textbook vs reality) PRENATAL ENVIRONMENT People and the newborn Use the most accurate language ▪ Smoking in pregnancy but she's the surrogate not the mom ○ Contributed the egg, sperm ○ Carried the pregnancy Care for the infant ○ Parents, CG, mom, dad, adoptive parent, guardian, grandparent, etc. Ask for the preferred term. Think about our use of language – everyone's responsibility ( use of inclusive language) TERATOGENS Any substances that can impact prenatal development Factors 1. Dose ( how much did they have?) 2. Genes ( ^ can impact genes) 3. Cumulative effects ( stressors/ adds stress) 4. Timing of exposure ( when did it happen? 1 tri vs 2 tri vs 3 tri = diff impact on outcome) 5. Hard to research ( people tend to lie, wishful thinking about their own habits) Correlation isn't causation How to test for cause and effect? = mice, rats in labs – animal testing CIGRETTES Nicotine ○ Inhibits oxygen intake in blood ○ Increases CO2 = less o2 in fetal blood ▪ True in both first and second hand ( do we have them take time off if they work in an environment that smokes indoors?? ) ○ Epigenetic effects ▪ Changed to gene expression, linked to cancer ALCOHOL 3 subgroups of FASD 1. Classic FAS a. Facial deformities b. Mental disability 2. Only some impact ( physical/ cognitive symptoms) 3. Cognitive impairments without physical defects ~ Every 1/100 births? ○ Most common nongenetic intellectual disability ○ alcohol disrupts brain dev  Heavy drinking in bio father can pass on epigenetic effects Health Canada = no safe amount during preg ○ How does this change cross culturally? ○ How does it change overtime? CONTROVERSIAL CDC REC Women of sexually active age ( childbearing age ) should abstain from drinking if not on birth control ○ very assumptive ○ What about men? ○ Diff cultures might not allow BC ( no access) Apply it, Critique it " Why would you risk it if you don't know" - esp OTHER SUBSTANCES Hard drugs ( heroin, cocaine, marijuana) ○ Often used with many other substances ( alcohol. Smoking etc.) ○ More likely to have mood/anxiety disorders, other factors ( nutrition ) ○ Confounding variable – usually people who take these hard drugs have more stress in their lives marijuana ○ Thc can pass through the placenta ○ No safe amount – Health canada ENVIRONMENTAL TOXINS Not in the textbook Mercury ○ Industrial waste Air pollution ○ Near factory? Pesticides ○ Agricultural worker? Where does this pregnant person work and live? ○ What is this person exp to? STRESS – affects fetal dev Brain dev Birth weight ( used as a measure of health) Preterm " Never in the history of calming down has anyone calmed down by being told to calm down." You're stressed. I know. - now I'm stressed about being stressed. How do we remove stressors? What can we do to help? PREGNANCY AND DISEASE Placenta ○ Stops bacteria but not some viruses ○ RUBELLA ▪ German measles Virus; cause multiple prenatal deficits if contacted in the 1st trimester Birthing process Indirect impact Breastmilk  HIV passed around time of delivery or breast feeding, ○ Reduce risk with antiretrovirals ZIKA VIRUS Spread by mosquitoes Non preg = cold, flu Preg = babies had microcephaly, attention deficits, cognitive issues COVID-19 Emerging research Preliminary research ○ Doesn't seem to pass through the placenta ○ Increase negative outcomes ▪ Mostly at risk to the preg person ○ Rec vaccine when preg HEALTH OF GENETIC FATHER Overeating just before puberty ○ Assc with sons and grandsons ▪ Higher risk of diabetes, Cardiovascular disease, early death ▪ Epigenetic changes Older genetic father – higher risks of ○ Schizophrenia ○ Autism ○ Reduced IQ/ social functioning PREGNANCY AND NUTRITION – do you need to "eat for two"???? Undernutrition ○ Famine, malnutrition ▪ Assc with obesity, heart disease. Diabetes ○ Developmental programming ▪ Prenatal undernutrition metabolic changes to use food when scarce Over nutrition ○ Prenatal "overnutrition" ▪ Gain too much weight during pregnancy Linked to obesity Seen in animal studies Canada's guide Exercise – varied advice from doc to doc, midwife to midwife etc. ○ Athletes – Allyson Felix advocated for preg leave ▪ Some lose their sponsorship Mental health Nutrition PRENATAL BIOLOGY 1. Germinal period ( week 0-2) ○ Sperm + ovum = zygote -> blastocyst -> embryo -> implantation ( adheres to uterine lining ~30%) 2. Embryonic ( 3-8) ○ Major organs formed ○ Neutral plate -> tube -> top = brain ▪ Defects- spinal bifida ▪ Protect with prenatal vitamin: folic acid ○ Most vulnerable period – miscarriage 20-30% 3. Fetal period ( 9 til birth) ○ Facial features, functional limbs  ○ Hair ( lanugo) and coating ( vernix) ○ 7 m = functioning organs ▪ Lungs are fully developed Why premature babies are in incubators – lungs not fully dev, no temp reg , no antibodies ○ Last 2 m = develop fat, pass antibodies to baby Fetus sensory abilities + behaviour ○ Simple movements ▪ Kick flip move around ○ Blink yawn cry ○ Facial expressions ( smile, frown, sticking the tongue out) ○ Sleep wake pattern ○ 6 m = see light and hear ○ Able to recognize voices – faster heartbeats – familiar ○ Swallow amniotic fluid ○ Learning happens ○ Flavour Study: carrot juice – prenatal and post natal learning by human infants ( 2001) ○ Story preference ( The Cat in the Hat) ○ Able to recognize voices – faster heartbeats – familiar stimili Trimester = divided by time, doesn't line up with the prenatal, embryonic, fetal PRENATAL BRAIN DEVELOPMENT Neuron = basic brain cell Glial = support neuron Neurogenesis SEXUAL DIFFERENTIATION 6 wks = all same genitals ○ XY: SRY gene on Y chromosome "turns on," -> testes formation ○ XX: lower testosterone lvls -> bye bye testes -> female genitals Complete androgen insensitivity -> XY dev female external genitalia Congenital adrenal hyperplasia: XX -> male external genital Gender refers to attributes/feels/ behaviours culturally accepted with person's bio sex PRENATAL CARE Access Many don't have access to quality, consistent prenatal care ○ Indigenous, up north -> ^ infant mortality ○ Travelling compounds trauma, no support network Racism/discrimination in healthcare ○ Indigenous, black, minorities Monitoring the Fetus Triple screen test ○ Blood levels of proteins, hormones -> produces by fetal/placenta ○ Weight monitored – fetal health indicator ○ Ultrasonography – detailed 2d image of fetus ○ Size, growth ( head size, anatomy, ratio of body parts etc.) , twins, abnormalities Infertility and Assisted Reproduction 1/6 couples in CA – infertility ○ Low sperm count ○ Damage reproductive system from disease/conditions  ○ Age LGBTQ+ Single parent families Assisted Reproductive Technology Intrauterine insemination ○ Sperm collection -> inserted into fallopian tubes -> take fertility drugs to enhance ovum In vitro fertilization (IVF) ○ Fertilized outside uterus ○ Eggs removes, fertilized, implanted Surrogate ○ Receives the embryo BIRTH Stages of Childbirth Oxytocin starts uterin contractions Labour – uterine contracts reg intervals, grad pushes baby out 3 stages 1. Dilation -> 10 cm avg 12 hrs first baby 2. Birth of baby ( 20-50 mins) 3. Placenta ( 15mins) Birthing practices Hospital/ home/ birth center Doc/ midwife Doula ( support) ○ Not medical professional, emotional support ○ Work in conjunction with hospitals Childbirth classes ○ Shorter labour, more enjoyable, less pain meds ○ No evidence of long term outcomes for babies Pain management – epidural ( most common) Caesarean Section ( C-Sections) ^: aim to decrease overall NEWBORN APGAR scale ○ Appearance, pulse, grimace, activity/muscle tone, respiratory effort ○ Check vital signs at 1 min and 5 mins after birth ○ coordination of speech articulators improves -> valuable skill needed to pronounce words EARLY SOCIAL COMMUNICATION Infant directed speech (IDS) – how an adult talks to a baby/ "baby talk" ○ Shorter sentences, ^ articulation, repeated words/phrases, higher pitch, more variable pitch, exaggerated stress, imitation of infant's speech by parents ○ Helps infants notice and separate words out of a stream of speech ○ Infants pay more attention to this type of speech, esp in positive emotional tone ○ Assoc with better learning outcomes of phoneme cat and larger vocab @ 12m Joint attention = adults and infants pay attention to the same event ○ Observed ~9m, reflects infants understanding that others have goals and intentions ○ Looking at nature = great way to encourage JA and allows infants to learn words ~12m ○ Understand that adults see with eyes ▪ Infants look where adults look if their eyes are open Cg and infants who have ^ bouts of joint attention + attention to objects + say the name of object = produce more meaningful gestures; more vocab at earlier age  LEARNING WORD MEANINGS ~6-12m = understand meanings of words; begins word production ( intelligible) COMPREHENDING WORDS Hearing words in various contexts helps to build meanings Proof of comprehension of word meanings ○ Shown 2 screens; mom and dad " where's mommy?" "where's daddy?" ○ Infants 6m looked longer at the appropriate photo Shows that infants understand some words before first word Survey: ~12m ( avg understand 74 words, 6 spoken) NATURE OF EARLY WORDS 1st word = usually important object or person Acquire vocab slowly after; avg ~50 by 18m ○ Similar across infants and across language communities Fig. Common first words Children – practical language learners and users Few verbs and adjectives -> refers to desires Produce more nouns; easier to name than actions ○ Languages that use verbs more ( Korean, Chinese), nouns and verb in speech = ERRORS IN WORD USAGE Errors = interesting and potentially informative Overextensions = extended adult meaning of word too far Underextensions = using a word in more limited contexts ○ Both occur in 1/3 of children's productive vocab ~1-2yrs ○ Errors drop after 2.5 yrs Likely to overextend in production vs comprehension Errors or using it as a temp substitute? ○ Ex. Calling cow, dog: similarities 4 legs, tail, eyes, ○ Attracts adults attention and often hears correction VIDEO: THINKING LIKE A SLP: WORKING WITH LANGUAGE DELAYS Diff ways to access language ○ Standardized assessments ○ Informal assessments ▪ Using play and identifying pictures, seeing what they can functionally do ○ Functional communication done a lot through play Social interaction dev ○ Harder and harder with tech; solo playing ○ Able to create the appropriate social interactions ▪ Eye contact, turn taking  USING SYNTAX Learn 1 language word @ a time; pack as much knowledge into it as possible Holophrases: single word used to capture a variety of meanings ○ Ex. Milk. Milk? Milk! Vocab ~ 150-200 words ○ Begin combining words ( 2-3) Telegraphic speech ▪ Short sentences containing high content words ( noun, verbs, adjs) omitting smaller ones ( to, so, the, with) ▪ Limited to short sentences b/c they haven't figure out syntax yet ▪ Uses words in particular orders expresses semantic relationships between words and actions Agent + action ( momma help) Agent + action + object ( momma help dat) ▪ Grammatical inflections ○ Devoid of tenses ▪ Ex. Norrie rock vs Norrie is rocking ○ Don't add smaller words and grammatical endings until 2.5yrs Universal: Express relationships that reflect interplay among people, objects, and actions Creative: some expression used by children aren't used by adults Understand more complex syntactic structures and semantic relationships than they can express Esp at holophrases, 2-3 word combos Support seen in preferential looking procedure ○ Involves putting infant in lap infront of 2 screens; adults closes eyes ○ Watches 2 simultaneously playing videos ○ Sentences plays over speaker; whichever picture child stares at longer implies understanding BIOLOGICAL BASES OF LANGUAGE Human brain designed to acquire language rapidly sci generated info about IT cap -> crucial of future dev Focuses: 1. Core knowledge approach a. Studies of infants understanding of numbers 2. Info processing/ neurosci a. Attention and memory b. Categorization c. Prediction of intelligence from infancy CORE KNOWLEDGE SYSTEM = KNOWLEDGE THAT IS PRESENT EARLY IN DEV THAT DEV WITH LITTLE OR NOT EXP Enables infants to make sense of the world with minimal exp ○ Physical and social Reasoning about physical relationships among objects Spatial navigation ○ Works with crawling Language processing Keeping track of actions made by humans and other environmental factors Rep numbers ○ Most surprising/interesting cap found in infants! CORE KNOWLEDGE OF NUMBERS Psychologist Karen Wynn ○ Exps: learn what IT might understand about numbers Steps exp 1 1. 5m shown mouse doll on stage -> screen raised, mouse hidden, 2. 2nd object added -> hand leaves empty 3. Screen dropped -> revealed 2 objects Unexpected outcome-> one object revealed when screen dropped = impossible event ○ Infants looked longer -> shows expectations of how many should be on stage Exp 2 ○ Exp started with 2 dolls -> screen up -> hand removes 1 doll -> infant shown 1 or 2 dolls on stage ○ Impossible event = 2 dolls; stared longer Able to track reflected in attention span Key aspects of memory = present early -> improv gradually ○ First 2 years – IT gradually ^ speed for habituating to a new stimulus = faster encoding to memory Operant conditioning ○ 2m - Able to remember responses ^ ability to retain OC responses over infancy Fig. Memory retention in infants overtime Implicit memory = unconscious learning of response or skill Ex. Reaching Explicit memory = conscious recall of exp and events Ex. Deferred imitation ~9-24m – gradual ^ in ability to imitate adult actions after delay ○ 12m -> able to imitate 1m later ○ 24m -> able to imitate recall^ generalization about dogs -> allows us to recognize unfamiliar mixed breed dogs Habituation = common technique -> study cat dev ○ Ex. 3-4m shown pics of cat -> gradually paid less attention to pics and focused more on test stimulus of dog ▪ Implies categorization of cat vs dog 6-9m: has categories and sub categories ○ Categories ▪ Furniture, vehicles, food, kitchen utensils, people varying in age and gender, emotional expressions ( happy vs sad), animals ○ Subcategories: animals ▪ Land vs water use of categorization in play with toys Ability to think of objects internal properties ○ Movement trajectory ▪ Vehicle move straight line; animals nonlinear movements (jumping, side to side) Categories help children learn spoken language/ vice versa RELATIONSHIP OF INFANT INFO PROCESSING TO LATER INTELLIGENCE JP claim cog dev not continuous with later dev, reorganization of child's thinking at end of SM period Memory and categorization -> counterparts in adulthood Question: are basic info processing skills related to later dev? Infants encode new stimulus information at diff paces ○ Speed of encoding ( forming memories) links to later intelligence and achievement (reading and math) scores Investigate long term stability of indiv differences in 4 info processing skills  ○ Infant score correlated to 7-12 scores in same abilities Infant abilities added something to the prediction to IQ Certain aspects of info processing -> continuality w/ cog skills used later in life ○ Bayley Scales of Infant Development (3rd edition) ▪ Measures infant ( in addition to prev measurements ) Attention Habituation Visual memory formation Imitation Problem solving Language skills 5.1 Piaget's Theory of Sensorimotor Development Friday, January 24, 2025 1:21 PM Jean Piaget (JP) ○ interested in understanding the origins of intelligence in children ○ Known for rich observations and insightful proposals ▪ Infant cognitive abilities ○ Important to understand his theory -> discoveries were inspired by them THE PROCESS OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT JP viewed children = explorer and scientist who dev an understanding of the world by experiencing it Child reality = stored in mental schemes ○ Organized in ways of thinking / acting ▪ Events, people, objects ○ Schemes -> change with age 4 broad stages of dev 1. Sensorimotor stage ( Birth – 2) ▪ How a child interprets the world putting together sensory and motor info 2. Mental representations ( 2-7) ▪ Internalized mental schemes that happen overtime Images, words, concepts 3. Concrete operational ( 7-11) 4. Formal Operational ( 12+) Dev change = infant's mind wants to be in cognitive equilibrium ( be able to act/understand the world properly) ○ Achieve CE 2 intrinsic processes: Adaptation and Organization ▪ Adaptation = using and making modifications to a scheme through repetitive interactions w/ envir Assimilation= interpreting schemes with existing schemes Accommodation = changing schemes to fit the experience 2nd principle in Piaget theory = organization ○ Linking schemes together to build a more complex understanding; builds more complex structures within the mind ○ Cycle between equilibrium and disequilibrium ▪ How we learn Drop ball -> falls ( equilibrium) Drop balloon -> floats !!! That doesn't fall ( disequilibrium) 4m infant -> knows how to swing arms at dangling toy + grasp toy: sees mobile toy above crib = disequilibrium ○ Needs to learn how to coordinate reaching and grasping schemes to achieve equilibrium ○ Requires a ^ understanding of their actions and how it interacts with the world THE SENSORIMOTOR SUBSTAGES First 2 years = tons of adapting and reorganizing of schemes 6 substages ○ ~ age estimates, structure of behaviour and sequence of dev ○ Useful to mark a childs dev in adaptation and organization 1. Newborn ( birth to 1m)  i. Reflex ii. Eg. Sucking, following moving object, grasping 2. 1-4m i. Primary circular reactions ii. Repeatedly kicking legs 3. 4-8m i. Secondary circular reactions Repetition of interesting actions that produce results in the environment Looks for "feedback" from the environment Shaking rattle 4. 8-12m i. Coordinate secondary circular reactions + schemes = effects ii. Goal oriented iii. Begins to understand object permanence iv. Imitate slightly unfamiliar behaviours v. Coordinating actions using 2 hands, pushing one object aside to get another, gesture to object for adult to give it 5. 12-18m i. Tertiary circular reactions ii. Imitate ^ novel behaviours iii. Vary actions to observe effects iv. Flexibility in object searching v. Dropping ball at diff angles to see how it bounces, look for object at location A, follow to location B 6. 18-24m i. Uses mental rep ii. Begin to understand images and words stand for objects/events iii. Invents new ways to problem solve iv. Deferred imitation v. Pretend play vi. Name various objects vii. Understands object permanence Infants born with innate sensory and motor capabilities ○ Reflexes ▪ Rooting, sucking, ability to track objects with their eyes Circular = repeated actions Substages 1-3: has random qualities Substage 4: Goal-directed behaviour = carry out 2 schemes in a row to get a desired result ○ Object permanence test ▪ Attracts baby's attention then hides the object -> does the baby find it? A-not-B search error ○ Children bound by habit -> stage 4 ○ Place object in location a; always placed there -> move to obvious place in location B -> child looks for object in location a, can't find it, gives up// doesn't search ▪ Shows infants inability to search for objects in it's last location ▪ Doesn't have concept of object permanence Substage 5: intentionally vary methods to solving problems and vary schemes to get be able to observe different outcomes ○ Improves object searching skills -> able to find object in multiple locations Substage 6: fully dev mental rep + able to solve problems vs trial and error problem solving ○ More opp for new capabilities to form ○ Understands that words stand for things ( ^ lang dev) ○ Object rep another thing ○ Fully dev object permanence  ▪ Able to find object in adults hand, object moved from A -> B ○ Engage in deferred imitation ▪ Able to imitate actions seen days/hours earlier Children can exhibit any of the substages at any age. Piaget's ages are just estimates. FOLLOW-UP STUDIES OF THE SENSORIMOTOR PERIOD Provides practical guidelines for childcare centers.-> create dev appropriate activities Problems 1. Earlier cognitive abilities 2. Challenge JP's explanations of the dev process OBJECT PERMANENCE Shows the challenges in figuring out what babies know and what they don't Violation-of-expectation Infants are exposed to an event that violates a principle and their method reactions are studied ○ Test for object permanence in why don’t they search for objects at 8-9m/ why fail in finding when objects move from A->B? ○ Factors: 1. Growth of working and long term memory for events i. Helps to keep track of what happened to the object ii. Searching needs the ability to plan and execute responses to inhibit responses that previously worked 2. Planning, holding info + execution of some but not all responses -> enlist prefrontal areas that are going through rapid dev ( ~8-12m) IMITATION Better and earlier than Piaget thought ○ Reported that imitation dev alongside other sensorimotor abilities -> deferred imitation after 18m Study of experimental studies ○ Demo novel action ( lifting flap with hinge) -> 1 day later: imitated more of the target actions than control group ( exposed to diff action/no exposure) ○ 14m – imitated receive stimulation from adult -> familiarization with face ▪ Crying -> picked up and cuddled, face is close -> familiarization 4.3 Motor Development Tuesday, January 21, 2025 1:42 PM Motor skills = product of interactions between brain and body dev, experiences, cultural practices NEWBORN REFLEXES AND OTHER MOVEMENTS Newborn behaviour = reflexive Reflex = fixed motor action that always occurs to specific stimuli Common reflexed in infants ○ Rooting, sucking, swallowing, breast against infants face, touch of nipple to infant's lips, sensation of milk entering the back of mouth etc. Cry – reflexive, useful adaptations in order for survival ○ Uncomfortable, sleepy, hungry, in pain Stepping reflex: held in vertical position -> feet touching ground -> alternating stepping motions Moro reflex: when infants exp a feeling of falling/hear a loud noise; spread arms -> bring back together to torso THE NEWBORNS REFLEXES Breathing reflex ○ Maintain adequate oxygen supply ○ Incl coughing and sneezing ○ Born before 37 wks, can have difficulty remembering to breathe; may lack smooth surface coating ▪ Need respirator help Maintain constant body temperature ○ Lose 80% of body heat through head ○ When not snuggling close to a person, kept in warmed bed for the first several hours after birth to facilitate body warmth ▪ Preterms may need warmed bed for weeks until reflex is present Rooting reflex ( sucking and swallowing) ○ Aid in feeding ▪ Preterm babies need a feeding tube ( through the nose) until reflex is strong and sufficient ○ Begin sucking when something touches cheek, lips etc. Other reflex indications of a healthy neonate ○ Babinski, Moro. Stepping, Swimming Most infant reflexes fade ○ Stepping – 2m ○ Moro – 3-4m ○ Sucking reflexing ( in infants control) -> intentional sucking ▪ Learn to speed up or down sucking rate OBSERVATION 1M OLD Engage in nonreflexive behaviour ○ All body parts that can move, move ▪ Blinking, waving, turning their head, arching back, open and closing hands, kicking legs ○ Movements = rhythmic and cyclical ▪ Kick left and right leg in cycles then resume after a pause ▪ Takes up to 40% of an infant's waking time  Actively testing what various body parts do CLASSIC AND MODERN THEORIES OF MOTOR DEVELOPMENT Motor development norms – established by Nancy Bayley 1936 -> Bayley Scales of Infant Development 2005 Gross motor skill = large muscle movements Fine motor skills = small muscle movements Head to tail, cephalocaudal pattern Dev of motor skills depends on ○ Maturation of the body, brain, sensory ability and exp (limited) Fig. Motor dev norms DYNAMIC SYSTEMS THEORY View motor and other skills as a part of a system that changes dramatically through dev 4 main components 1. Brain maturity 2. Body movement capabilities 3. Child's goals 4. Environmental supports for motor skills Motor skills = Self-organizing = come naturally from interactions ECOLOGICAL THEORY Emphasizes motor skills involve integration of action and perception ○ Ex. Child sits, body sways in all directions slightly, can detect loss of balance using perceptual info about body position ACQUIRING SPECIFIC MOTOR SKILLS Apply current theories to 3 main skills ○ Reaching and grasping, crawling, and walking REACHING AND GRASPING  Important to cognitive and perceptual dev ○ Allows child to learn about the capabilities and properties of objects and build skills to manipulate them Dynamic theory take ○ Cannot have innate motor skills for reaching yet because they need to learn how to the muscles in our shoulders, hands and arms work together in different contexts + experiments in order to do the 'whole' action of reaching ○ Infants learn to refine their movements throughout their first year of life Ecological theory take ○ Uses the perceptual system to guide motor skills ○ ~5m: Plan to reach using visual information + proprioceptive cues ( cues from their muscles about the location of their arm and hand) ▪ Ex. Reaching for a glow in the dark toy, child can see the toy but not their hands -> study showed that they can still reach it ○ Video ▪ 3-4m: reach and grasp for objects; attempting to hold things may not be successful the first time ▪ 5-7m – can firmly hold objects and transfer between hands ▪ 8-11m – have strength and coordination to grasp and pull on objects Learn the pincher grip: allows them to hold objects between thumb and forefinger CRAWLING Allows for more exploration of physical and social environment ○ ^ social, cognitive, neural devs Gesell – 23 stages in crawling -> rep universal sequence dependent on neuromotor maturation Experience = plays important role in motor skills dev ○ Cultural differences ▪ West and East African Cultures Believe that babies should learn how to walk as early as possible; don't believe that babies should crawl before walking Engage in special practices to aid babies sit, stand and walk ▪ Kipsigis of Kenya Dig holes in the ground and prop babies up in a sitting position ( with the help of blankets) Often skip crawling -> master sitting, standing, and walking earlier than Western babies Develop many way to crawl ○ Belly, creeping, bear-walking, scotting, classic ○ Body mechanics allows different methods of crawling ○ "where there is a will to cross a room., infants will find a way." Body mechanics ○ Researchers found that in American babies ▪ 50%: Belly crawl -> crawling on hands and knees ▪ 50%: straight to crawling on hands and knees ▪ Belly crawlers did not crawl on hands and knees earlier than those who didn't Argument – motor skills depend on both maturation and experience Back to back sleeping to prevent SIDS ○ Sleeping on their backs -> delay crawling by avg of 2m compared to side/tummy sleeper; able to walk and stand at the same avg time as other sleepers ○ 1/3 back sleeper did not crawl at all; delays in sitting up WALKING Walking independently ~ 9-17m  ~7m – infants have enough strength to cruise ( taking sideways steps while holding onto something like a wall or furniture) Takes a lot of effort to walk ○ Equivalent of 14k steps, 46 footballs fields and fell 100x More efficient of getting around ○ Compared to crawlers: walkers cover more space in less time = more exp variety ( visual, sensory, interactions with adults etc.) Learning to find solutions to balancing and moving each leg independently ~4-6m of walking = walking patterns are closed to an adults ○ Heel-toe progression ○ Longer steps, feet closer, toes point forward ○ Hands at the sides moving in sync CONTROL OF BOWEL AND BLADDER ~2yrs = learn how to control of bladder and bowels Signs they are ready ○ Remaining dry for longer ○ Complaining about wet diaper Use gentle encouragement and praise for successful toilet usage ~2-3yrs Key dev: children recognize signs of full bladder/colon and control their sphincter muscles long enough to make it to the toilet Study found that training earlier CONTROL OF BOWEL AND BLADDER ~2yrs = learn how to control of bladder and bowels Signs they are ready ○ Remaining dry for longer ○ Complaining about wet diaper Use gentle encouragement and praise for successful toilet usage ~2-3yrs Key dev: children recognize signs of full bladder/colon and control their sphincter muscles long enough to make it to the toilet Study found that training earlier ~17-19m= great success but longer training period Starting training after 27m = associated with shorter training time GROSS MOTOR DEVELOPMENT ACROSS CULTURALS Age in which a child masters gross motor skills depends on influences ○ genetic ○ environmental ○ Cultural ▪ Create variations in both age and the order of motor milestones Motor development was like physical dev = assumptions ○ Motor dev is not something that we learn to do it in a specific order ▪ Skip crawling or crawl after walking Infants change quickly Cycle through different areas on expertise ○ Beginning to learn a motor skills tend to make the same mistake as they made in learning a previous motor skill ▪ Crawling over an edge 4.2 Physical Growth and Brain Development Tuesday, January 21, 2025 8:46 AM Dramatic brain and body growth in the first 2 yrs GROWTH OF THE BODY Rapid growth has individual patterns ○ Involves environmental and genetic factors ○ Reflects principles of growth for humans FACTOR INFLUENCING PHYSICAL GROWTH IN INFANCY Formula fed -> tend to gain weight faster than breastfed; failure to diagnose potential obesity Some risk of breastfed -> diagnosed delayed growth Study by WHO – measured 8500 growth between birth and 5, 6 countries ○ Children predominantly breastfed 4m-12m ○ Good health care + good nutrition ○ Limited exposure to toxins ○ Measured head circumference, length and weight Fall below 5th % = medical exam; slow growth Above 90th % = risk of obesity Physical dev = strong genetic direction/control ○ Strong genetic control = canalization ▪ Means "channeled" Return to predetermined genetic growth after period of malnutrition = catch-up-growth ○ Growth spurts!~ ○ Extreme deprivation = can lead to permanent stunted growth PRINCIPLES OF GROWTH 2 important principles found within first 2 years 1. Cephalocaudal pattern latin: Head to tail a. Head grows faster than body Birth: head = ¼ body length 2 years = 1/5 body length b. Motor skills gain in the head first then body Control of eyes then arms then legs etc. 2. Proximodistal pattern latin: near to far a. From the centre of the body outwards Head/torso grow first -> limbs Control of head/torso -> limbs Fig. Proportions of humans overtime BRAIN DEV: DEV OF NEUTAL NETWORKS Newborn brain = ¼ of adult size -> grows 70% adult size by age 1 -> 80% age 2 Brain = huge communication network made from neurons and their connections ○ Neuron – 3 parts ( dendrites, cell body, axon) ▪ Dendrite – info receiver ▪ Cell body – generates tiny electrical impulses, send to axon ▪ Axon – messenger; has terminal buttons at the tip ▪ Myeline sheath – layer of fatty tissue that surrounds axon ▪ Terminal button + terminal button of another = synapses ▪ Synapses do not touch ▪ Electrical impulse transmitted between synapses = neurotransmitters ○ Fig. Neuron structure ○ First 6m = dendrites grow rapidly, synapses form at the rate of hundreds of thousands/min (synaptogenesis) First 18m – brain has ~50% ^ synapses than adult brain Fig. Showing the number of synapse connections in the first 6m Pruning of neutral synapses = key to dev ○ Competitive; use it or lose it  ○ The more often a synapse gets used, the strong it becomes ○ Reduces number of synapses by 40-50% Synaptogenesis and pruning – occur in waves during diff dev times in diff locations Visual and auditory cortices – peak of synaptic density @ 4-12 m ○ Visual, language, auditory pruning to adult levels at 3-6 yrs Prefrontal cortex higher order thinking = slower rise in density ○ Pruning continues until late adolescence Synaptogenesis + pruning = shapes neural network ○ Failure of dendrites to grow + no synapse formations = abnormal brain dev ( down syndrome) ○ Excessive growth of synapses /failure to prune in first 2years = forms of ASD Myelination = axon is coated with layers of fatty tissue ○ Myelinated axons = 100X faster at sending signals ○ Axons @ birth deep in brain stem = begun myelination already ○ Rapid growth in the 1st year ▪ 5-6m occipital and parietal lobes ▪ 7-9m frontal lobes ▪ Fig. Myelination in infancy ○ BRAIN DEV: CHANGES IN CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM STRUCTURE Birth mature parts of central nervous system = lower segments ○ Spinal cord, brain stem, cerebellum Cerebral cortex – 3-4mm thin tissue; surrounds brain like a helmet; % into 2, joined at centre Corpus callosum – large arc shaped bundle of axons Cortex – has specialized functions during infancy Subcortical structures – deep within brain perform # of functions ○ Relaying messages ○ Important structures ▪ Connect to frontal and temporal lobes: hippocampus, amygdala ▪ Brain's processing of emotions and formation of memories MRI – helps us study changes in brain size in infancy ○ Birth – 1-2 yrs ▪ Grey matter ( synapses, neural cell bodies, dendrites) ^ 108% 1st year ▪ ^19% 2nd year  ▪ Sensory and motor = fairly well dev ○ 1st Rapid growth areas: language areas in frontal and temporal lobes, areas involved in high visual processing, insula – bodily and emotional awareness ○ 2nd rapid growth areas: parietal/ frontal lobes – integrate info from other brain areas to solve spatial/other types of problems; hippocampus – subcortical memory structure Brain dev related to changes in behaviour and age Frontal lobe function -> goal orientated problem solving ○ 8-12m ▪ Rapid process: ability to find hidden objects after a short period of time I.e peek a boo ○ Prefrontal regions -> planning, executing, performance in tasks requiring control of attention ▪ I.e. point to objects of interest ~9m EXPERIENCE AND BRAIN DEVELOPMENT Brain dev = highly canalized; great deal with neuroplasticity ( can be modified by exp) Brain dev = more sensitive = more moldable 2 conceptual aspects of neuroplasticity 1. Experience-expectant brain dev a. Happens in early dev in infant b. Brain = prewired to expect certain experiences ( seeing and touching objects, hearing language and sounds) c. Synapses ^production + pruning in appropriate brain areas = more efficient sensory and motor systems d. Pruning -> more diff to have major impacts on neural networks ○ Deaf community and Cochlear implant ▪ Brain tasked with rewiring- can take months ▪ Deafness is not something that can be cured = can be supported! ▪ Optimal age for implantation – 3 ½ -4 yrs ; best results- long periods of sleep = needs stimulation ( brain has internal activity) REM declines with age ○ Shorter sleeping periods ○ Brain is more mature; doesn't need the stimulation to dev " Short periods of quiet alertness seem well suited to an immature brain and provide opportunities to socialize or use the senses to explore the environment." Soothing techniques for crying ○ Swaddling, baby sling, rocking bassinet, cuddling, talking, singing, breastmilk, bottle. ▪ Ensures baby gets the attention it needs, physical contact Waking sleeping cycle – dynamic system btwn mother and baby -> suited for breast feeding ○ Hormones oxytocin and prolactin stimulate let-down reflex to stimulate milk flow Colic = unexplained long bouts of crying ( can continue until 4m) ○ Not illness; due to baby's ability to self soothe/respond to soothing stimulation ~3-4m = all babies cry less, more alert/responsive to social awareness SLEEPING AND INFANT HEALTH Gradual shift into day-night cycle ○ Most babies sleep more at night by 6m ( in industrial societies) CULTURE AND CO-SLEEPING Co-sleeping = when parents and infant sleep together in the same bed ○ Norm in some countries for centuries ○ Beliefs: Better biologically, helps baby sleep, makes breastfeeding easier, promotes parent infant bonding ○ Concern CA US- some cases of SIDS caused by accidental smothering ( parent rolled over) Co-sleeping has no different in infant survival rates! -> use precautions ( place infant on small cot near parent's bed/sleeping on a hard mattress) -> safe!! Hard mattress = reduces the risk of suffocation SUDDEN INFANT DEATH SYNDROME (SIDS) Rare ( 0.3 /1000 babies die of SIDS/year in CA) Majority of cases - ~2-4m No known cause Sleeping position could be linked but there is not evidence ○ Sleeping on stomach vs sleeping on back Neurological deficits ○ Low lvls of neurotransmitter serotonin ○ Physical abnormalities in brain stem that regulate ▪ Sleep ▪ Breathing ▪ Other automatic body functions Risk ^ if exposed to prenatal toxins, low birth weight, siblings died of SIDS ( unknown genetic factors), minority groups living in poverty Triple-risk model ○ Genetic predisposition/brain abnormality that affects neural breath control ○ Btwn 2-4m ( crucial time of maturation for brain center's regulating breathing) ○ Exposed to stressors that affect breathing ▪ Respiratory infections, fever, too warm of a room, cig smoke Reduce Risk 1. Treating respiratory infections 2. Don't let the infant get overheated 3. Eliminate exposure to smoke 4. Supine position on firm sleep surface i. No pillows, comforters, quilts. Bumper pads etc.) 5. Ill infants sleep in the same room as parent's 6. Infants with fever -> well-ventilated crib with fan in room Health Canada rec breastfeeding ONLY for the first 6m to lower risk by up to 50% NUTRITION Young infants can't chew of swallow solid/semisolid food -> must be fed formula or breast milk Other foods can be introduced after 6m ○ Mashed fruit and veg Breastfeeding should continue to 12m ○ Breastmilk = always sterile, @ body temp, contains antibodies from mother, no prep, has the exact concentration of what a baby needs nutritionally for the first 6m ▪ Proteins, fats, carbs, iron, other minerals and vitamins ○ Don't breastfeed if mother has infection that can be passed through the milk ( HIV, TB); ingested environmental toxins/contaminants, other physical/medical reasons SHORT-TERM BENEFITS OF BREASTFEEDING  Exclusively breastfed 4m compared to formula ○ Less respiratory/GI infections (64-72%) ○ Less allergic reactions (27%) ○ Lower rate of acute otitis media middle ear infections (50%) Breast fed for 6m ○ Leaner; higher ratio of muscle to fat by end of 1st year ○ May reduce risk of obesity/overweight in childhood Deaths from serious intestinal disease and SIDS 36% lower Great benefits to premmie babies ( growth, health, overall behavioral dev) Short term Benefits for mothers ○ Reduced blood loss after birth ○ Faster shrinking of the uterus LT for mothers -> slightly lower risk of post partum depression LONG TERM OUTCOMES OF BREASTFEEDING Breastfed 4-6m infants = health benefits in childhood and later life ○ Study didn't involve experimental designs ▪ Ex. Differences in SES, exposure to toxins in preg, mother's general health practices, families choosing to breastfeed vs those who don't Slightly lower rates of obesity and diabetes, higher iq (?) ○ Take away SES, adjust for parent's education = diff in IQ scores disappears/is no longer clinically meaningful ^IQ? -> breast milk ^ concentration of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids ○ Plays essential role in growth of mammalian retina and cortex ○ Raised IQ of 3-4yr old by avg 3.5pts ○ LCPUFA metabolism genes -> potential candidate gene for IQ? Mixed results NUTRITION FROM 6-24M 6m ○ Albe to eat semi solids ▪ Rice, oatmeal, mashed/pureed fruit and veg ○ New foods introed one at a time ▪ Monitor baby for allergic reactions/digestive problems 1yr ○ Sit in high chair, feed themselves ▪ Easily chewed items Cheese, cooked cereal with milk, soft crackers, cooked veggies, soft/mashed fruit THINKING LIKE A PEDIATRIC NURSE PRACTIONER: ADVICE ON NEWBORNS Newborn 1st week visit ○ Parents nervous, not sure what is going on -> try to put at ease 1. Baby not as responsive as older babies i. Eat sleep poop 2. Awake -> interact with baby as much as possible i. Talk to them, play with them, wait for response, respond to the response 3. Subtle teaching of the act of conversation 4. Cry = communication i. Hungry ii. Dirty iii. Pain/uncomfortable iv. Need attention 3.1 Prenatal Development Tuesday, January 14, 2025 11:46 PM 3.1 PERIODS OF PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT Sperm + ovum + fertilization = zygote Conception -> birth = ~ 266 days ○ Zygote will transform 200+ times in this period 3 stages of prenatal dev 1. Germinal ( first 2 weeks) 2. Embryonic ( 3-8 weeks) 3. Fetal ( 9+ weeks) THE GERMINAL PERIOD - first 2 weeks 1. Zygote -> fallopian tube -> uterus 1 day later – mitosis (cell division) 4 days later – blastocyst ( ball of cells with hollow core) Cluster of cells inside form embryo; outside form supporting structure/sac 2. Blastocyst implants to uterine wall ( ~ 2 weeks after fertilization) ○ One of the most vulnerable part of dev ▪ ~ 30% of zygotes implant successfully TWINS Formed during germinal period 1. Monozygotic/ Identical twins ( 1 in 250) ○ Blastocyst divides into 2 sets of identical DNA ▪ Each develops own sac, share single chorion and placenta 2. Dizygotic/ Fraternal twins ○ 2 ova fertilized by 2 separate sperms at the same time ▪ 2 amnionic sacs, chorions, placentas; chorions and placentas may fuse together ○ Genetically like siblings ○ Higher chance in some families ○ More common in women in their 30s due to the utilization of fertility drugs Risks ○ ^ risk of damaging/loss of fetus ○ Low birth weight ○ ^ health risk for mother ( blood pressure, blood sugar) THE EMBRYONIC PERIOD - 3-8 weeks All major organs/body parts created ( rudimentary) Vulnerable – mothers may not know they are pregnant and do harmful behaviours ( drinking) ~20-30% embryos fail = miscarriage ○ Usually has a malformed embryo/ half have chromosomal abnormalities Blastocysts -> multiple cell lines ○ Group 1: form internal organs, skin, muscles ○ Group 2: bone, sense organs, nervous systems First 2 weeks, 2 major changes ○ Formation of neutral tube + primitive CV system ○ Placenta + other support structures form for nutrition/waste needs Neutral plate = nervous system origin! Fig. 3.3 - Formation of the Neutral Tube + Defects  A. shows the formation and closure B. Shows points in dev where tube closes ( top) or fails to close (bottom) C. Shows where defects can occur @ 4 weeks Top end of neutral tube = brain ~ 25 days after fertilization = closes Neutral tube defects – occur when tube fails to close ( 1 in 8000 live births) ○ No brain development above the brainstem = anencephaly ○ No closure in the middle/lower ( day 26 –28 ) = Spinal bifida (1 in 2000 LB) ▪ Spinal cord protrudes through vertebrae ▪ Various motor, bladder, cognitive problems ○ Risks ▪ Lack of vitamin B-complex folic acid from mother Prenatal vits have reduced the risk of neutral tube defects Heartbeat/ blood flow = day 21-22 ○ First organ system to function! ○ Why? Body needs oxygen/nutrition provided by the umbilical cord/placenta to support rapid growth/change Rapid growth in second month ○ Limbs start to form ○ Fig. Embryo at 6wks ○ ○ Inner organ systems begin to form ○ Facial formation and fusion ( by the end of the 2nd month) Fig. Size 8 wks = ~ 2.5cm, 11g THE FETAL PERIOD - 9 - ~38 weeks Weight increase: 1g -> 3400g Length increase: 2.5cm -> 50cm Cognitive, physical, behavioural development PHYSICAL GROWTH ~3m ○ 10cm/ 8g ○ Facial features formed ○ Limbs functioning; movement as brain connections form ( brain – muscle) ~4m ○ Doubles in weight/length ○ Stronger movement: mother can feel it ~5m ○ Doubles in weight/length ( 30cm/455g) ○ 'finishing details' : Nails, eyelids – able to open and close ○ Covered in lanugo ( downy hair) + vernix ( white cheese-like substance) ▪ V- protects skin from movements/ soaking in amniotic fluid ○ Facial features/ body parts – visible on ultrasound ~7m ○ 40cm/1360g ○ Functioning organs – lungs last ▪ Med tech adv ( premature) + time in womb = ^ survival rate ( ~22 wks youngest) Final 2 months ○ +few in. length/ +4lbs ○ Temperature regulation ( fat) forms ○ Mother antibodies -> fetus ▪ Protects from infections ( first few months) until immune system functions ○ Turn upside down, head down BEHAVIOUR AND COGNITIVE ABILITIES ~14-20wks ○ Adequate room to move freely ▪ Acrobatic ( launch themselves into the air, spin etc.) Smaller movements when room is restricted ○ Facial ( smile, frown, lip purse, sticking the tongue out.)  Movement = vital for fetal dev ○ Practices sensory abilities suitable for the 'real world' Month 3 – begins to swallow amniotic fluid + primitive taste buds ○ Exposed to mother's diet – flavours! Month 3-6 ○ Yawning, blinking, kicking, moving limbs in coordinated ways, thumb sucking, breathing, crying etc. ○ Brain = responding to stimuli ▪ Able to see ( fetoscope – bright light, fetus covers eyes with hands/closes eyes) and hear ( fetus responds to loud noises, singing, talking etc) Month 7+ ○ Develops a 'sleep/wake' schedule = similar to newborn Newborn's remember things they exps as a fetus ○ Recognize familiar voices/ sounds/stories ▪ Faster heartbeat to familiar things vs unfamiliar stimuli PRENATAL BRAIN DEVELOPMENT Important for brain development; 4 stages 1. Neurogenesis 2. Neural migration 3. Neural differentiation 4. Formation of neutral connections Neurons = basic information processing cells ○ ~5 wks – production of neurons begin (neurogenesis) ▪ Peak production = 200k neurons/min ○ Neurogenesis complete = ~ 5 months Glial Cells (cells that provide neurons nutrients/dispose waste, guide during migration, insulate with myelin) ○ Rapid formation; fundamental Neuron Migration - ~6wks – 6m ○ Neurons move through the neural tube to form brain ▪ Sliding up long fibres created by the Glial cells ▪ Laterally moving on their own ○ Complete by 7th month Neural differentiation – happens parallel to migration ○ Genetically programmed destination for specific functions ▪ Migration -> neuron programmed by surrounding cells cannot be undone. ▪ Final destination -> neural connections formed Synapses = neural connections ○ Tiny gaps where an electrochemical signal can pass between 2 neurons ○ Connections form through movement, use of senses ~50% of neurons which fail = die -> sets up efficient info processing system later KEY TERMS Sunday, January 19, 2025 2:31 PM GERMINAL PERIOD Dev in the first two weeks after fertilization EMBRYONIC PERIOD Dev 3- 8 weeks FETAL PERIOD Dev weeks 9 til birth IMPLANTATION When blastocyst attaches to the uterine lining MONOZYGOTIC TWINS Identical twins; division of zygote into two genetically identical organisms DIZYGOTIC TWINS Fraternal twins; formed from two diff fertilized ova and two diff sperm NEUTRAL TUBE DEFECTS Defects from neutral tube failing to close NEURON Basic information cell in the brain; sends and receives messages NEUROGENESIS The formation of new neurons GLIAL CELLS Cells that support neurons with waste disposal, provide nutrients, helps guides during migration, insulate with myelin NEURONAL MIGRATION Neutrons migrating from where they are formed to their final destination NEURAL DIFFERENTIATION Transformations of neuron stem cells into new neuron types SYNAPSES Tiny gaps between neurons that allow for an electrochemical signal can pass TERATOGEN Environment influence that can cause harm to prenatal dev RUBELLA German measles; virus causes multiple prenatal defects if mother gets infects within the first 1st tri DEVELOPMENTAL Physiological changes in the fetus from environmental stimuli during PROGRAMMING sensitive prenatal dev resulting in long term health changes TRIPLE SCREEN TEST Blood test given to mother; identifies abnormal levels of 3 substances orig from fetus/placenta; indicators of possible fetal abnormalities IN-VITRO FERTILIZATION Fertilization happens in petri dish -> embryo forms -> transferred back to (IVF) womb OXYTOCIN Hormone that initiates uterine contractions, stimulates other hormones ( estrogen) that reg contractions PRETERM Born before 37th weeks for preg LOW BIRTH WEIGHT Weigh less than 5.5lb or 2500g @ birth RESPIRATORY DISTRESS Condition in preterm babies where they don't produce enough surfacin in SYNDROME the lungs leading to the respiratory problems KANAGAROO CARE Skin to skin contact for extended period of time every day SMALL-FOR-DATE Weight is lower than normal gestational age 3.4 Birth and the Newborn Saturday, January 18, 2025 10:13 PM STAGES OF CHILDBIRTH Childbirth involves two way communication between mom and fetus Fetal brain mature -> sends chemical to mother -> sets off chain of hormonal secretions BIRTHING PRACTICES US and CA = 99% born in hospital ○ Things changed = mothers can be accompanied by several family members at a time Labour = uncomplicated – give birth in birthing room -> healthy baby -> can stay with mother and family ^ midwife and doula Child birth classes ○ Provides techniques to limit the pain a mother experiences during child birth ▪ Training for mother through labour; training for father as labour coach 2 common methods 1. Lamaze – views childbirth as natural and uses techniques to lower pain perception 2. Bradley – aims to reduce/eliminate use of pain meds during childbirth; uses partner as labour coach ○ Does not provide evidence that it ^ health in mother and baby ○ Assc with shorter labour, ^ enjoyment, less pain meds, partners feel closer to mother and baby Epidural – pain meds injected into mother's spine to block sensation from waist down ○ Downside – can't feel when to push -> prolong labour Caesarean sections ( C-sections) ○ Highly successful if baby is in distress, placenta blocks birth canal, baby in breech ○ ^ c sections-> dr concern = reasons? ^ 35+ mothers, drs err on the side of caution reduce chances of possible harm to mom and baby ACCESSING THE NEW BORN 1st thing = breath on their own ○ Colour change -> clear lodged muscus from throat -> umbilical cut -> weighted -> return to mom for warmth and breastmilk APGAR Scale ○ Test done 1 min and 5 mins ○ 4> = emerg ○ ~5mins ->> = healthy  Test for dev/neuro difficulties ○ Brazelton Neonatal Assessment Scale ▪ Given ~1m after birth Test reflexes, ability to respond to people, control of their own behaviour, attention to stimuli BIRTH COMPLICATIONS Common ○ Preterm – gestational age of 37> wks ( 12%) ○ Low birth weight – 5.5 lbs / 2500g > ( 8.1%) ○ Ultra-low birth weight – 3.3lbs/ 1500g > Pre term Risks ^ teenage mothers, over 35, african american, had prior preterm birth, multiples, maternal infections, maternal ^BP, stress, lack of prenatal care, substance use ○ ~50% preterm births = no cause Risks for Underdev systems ( lung, digestive, immune) baby Respiratory distress syndrome Lungs don't produce enough surfactin ( lining that coats the lungs to help oxygen absorption, dispose CO2 Low body temp – no fat Infections Kangaroo care = skin to skin ○ Rec for full term infants ○ Stimulates womb conditions ○ Creates feeling of closeness ○ Promotes breastfeeding Right weight for gestational weight? ○ Correct weight = better LT outcomes Small-for-date ( weighs less than normal gestational range) babies may have been exposed to various teratogens leading to abnormalities in growth and developmental hardships ○ ^ have respiratory distress syndrome, die within 1 year ○ LT = more difficulties in school, social, dev, lower IQ Small to Date and ultra low weight babies = more success in brain dev when raised in quiet womb like conditions 3.3 Prenatal Care Saturday, January 18, 2025 8:06 PM PRENATAL CARE GUIDELINES AND ACCESS TO CARE General guidelines to prevent prenatal illnesses ○ No smoking/drink, etc ○ Diet and weight gain ▪ + 100-300 calories/day ▪ Gaining 11- 16kg = ideal ( dependent on mother's weight and height) ○ Exercise ▪ Moderate ~30 mins+/day before pregnancy – recommended ▪ Moderate intensity that doesn't jostle uterus = rec during late preg Walking, swimming, cycling, gym exercises, yoga etc. ○ Vitamins ▪ Prenatal = folic acid, iron, calcium = most common ○ Medications ▪ Mother shouldn't stop taking her reg meds, consult with physician for new medications Some are known to be teratogens ( some antibiotics and anticonvulsants) ○ Regular checkups ▪ 1 visit prior to preg; 8 visits/ pregnancy = optimal Regular check ups = VERY IMPORTANT FOR 1ST PREG/ early on ○ Important – diet, exercise , weight gain, dr able to monitor mother's health Pregnancy medical conditions ○ Preeclampsia ( toxemia) = 5-10% ▪ Mother's BP^dramatically 2nd + 3rd tri Many don't have access to care ○ CA- infant mortality rates ^ ( more than double) in reserve vs gen pop ▪ Result of isolation, limited access to medical care, long distance to give birth – high risk transfers to S CA Leaving support system to give birth = re-traumatization ▪ Solutions? Training indigenous elders who use trad techniques to collab with midwives who use modern techniques Successful = Inuulitsivik Midwifery Service ( Northern Quebec) IMPORTANCE OF PRENATAL CARE – OBGYN VIDEO Healthy before preg Preg not just able baby -> nourishment for yourself and baby Identify harmful environment exposures ○ Cleaning supplies? Smoke exposure? What is normal for a patient? ○ Coffee, cold cuts, etc? ○ Offer realistic alt for them; find a balance MONITORING THE HEALTH OF THE FETUS Common technique to monitor fetal health ○ Weight gain – mother ○ Sudden drop in weight/ heart rate drops below levels= fetal distress/ fetal failing to grow ○ Ultrasonography – constructs detailed 2d image of fetus ( sonogram) ▪ Used to measure size and growth, multiples etc. ▪ Abnormalities( brain, limbs, heart) /defects  ▪ Most parents have emotional reactions when seeing sonogram Prenatal ultrasound video Used to do abdomen study = convex probe ( up and down, left and right ) Study can take up to thin need used to extract amniotic fluid -> DNA testing done on fetus skin cells Chronic villus sampling ( can be done as early as 7 wks) ○ Can be done vaginally or through abdomen INFERTILITY AND ASSISTED REPRODUTIVE TECHNOLOGY Rates of infertility ○ 11% 15-44 // 1/6 couples Reasons ○ Low sperm count ○ Damage to mothers reproductive system ( genetic conditions/disease) ○ Fertility declines in both male and females after age 35 Medical technologies ○ Intrauterine insemination ▪ Sperm collected from father and injected into fallopian tubes ▪ Mother usually takes fertility drugs to enhance ova production ○ In vitro fertilization (IVF) ▪ Fertilization happens outside body. ▪ Mother takes fertility drugs -> ovary stimulation -> egg retrieval -> fertilized in petri dish with sperm -> embryo dev -> implanted back to mother ○ Surrogacy ▪ Receives the embryo and carries baby to term ▪ Can be artificially inseminated with father/donor's sperm Concerns ○ IVF – may have dev problems ○ Fertility drug use = ^ fraternal twinning ( 30-50% compared to 1% natural) 3.2 Environmental Influences on Prenatal Development Thursday, January 16, 2025 9:32 AM Greatest concern = health ○ Stress levels, diet, smoke exposure, drug use, etc 98% born healthy w/o serious birth defects 5 focal environmental factors 1. Cigarettes 2. Alcohol /drug abuse 3. Maternal diseases 4. Maternal diet 5. Health of the father WEIGHING THE RISKS OF TERATOGENS Principles of teratogenic influences 1. Dose – how much have they had and for how long? 2. Genes – response depends on genetic vulnerability ▪ Smoking while preg -> general fetal growth; can contribute to ADHD symptoms in specific genotypes 3. Cumulative Effects - < when in combination with other stressors ▪ Alcohol + cocaine ▪ Teratogen + stress, poverty, poor med care for mother 4. Timing of exposure – When did they get exposed to it? How long? ▪ Thalidomide ▪ Retinoic acid 'Accutane' - harmful @ low doses, critical 3-5wks Fig. Sensitive periods in prenatal dev Fig. Principles of environmental effects  Fig. % of birth defect causes Birth defects = cause if mostly unknown ○ 20-25% hereditary + environmental factors ( multifactorial inheritance) ○ Mutant genes ( ex. Fragile X ), chromosomal abnormalities ( down syndrome ) = more common than environmental birth defects CIGARETTE SMOKING ~50% able to quit Growth impact on fetus ○ Tend to have lighter babies ○ ^ risk of miscarriage and have premature babies ○ Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS) linked to smoking ○ ^ incidence diseases ▪ Asthma, cancer, obesity, Diabetes type 2, coronary heart disease. ○ May be due to epigenetic profile modifications ▪ Epigenetic = like a sleeve that fits over the DNA strand Nicotine effects on fetus ( done through animal testing) ○ Constricts blood vessels ○ Reduces placenta ability to provide nutrients/oxygen to fetus Effects of cigarette smoke ○ Raises Carbon monoxide in bloodstream of fetus ○ Decrease methylation across the genome -> changes in gene expression ○ Increase methylation in certain genes that are linked to cancer Epigenetic Chemicals ( methyl + acetyl groups) ○ Control whether or not particular genes are turned on or odd throughout dev ALCOHOL 1. Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder ( FASD) /Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS) ○ ^ risk in women who have other risk factors ▪ Live in extreme poverty/stress Research shown ^ in Indigenous/rural/remote communities ○ 3 types 1. Classic Facial deformities ○ Flat nasal philtrum ( upper lip) ○ Broad nose ○ Smaller + widely spaced eyes ○ Fig. ○ Mental disabilities Drank ~5+ drinks 2x/week during 1st tri 2. Some facial and cognitive symptoms 3. Cognitive impairments but no physical deformities ○ Subgroup 2/3 = exposed to less alcohol overtime ( teratogen, dose/ exposure) Most common nongenetic cause of mental disabilities ○ US ~ 1-2 FASD/ 1000 live births ○ US + CA ~ 1FASD/100 live births Effects on brain ○ Neuron loss later in pregnancy ○ Reduced brain size ○ Impairments to large areas in the brain; white matter incld ○ Brain function abnormalities Epigenetic changes to basic structures between conception and to the middle of the embryonic periods during gene differentiation ○ Can be passed on by father if heavy drinker via sperm epigenetic materials DRUG ABUSE Common: marijuana, cocaine, heroin, methamphetamines ○ All diff effects depending on dose and timing ▪ Meth Restriction of growth in fetal period Decrease arousal Poor quality of movements ( infancy) ▪ Cocaine ^ miscarriage , prematurity, Physical malformations ▪ Cocaine + marijuana  Used throughout preg = school age ^ attention span problems. Lang dev, learning, behaviour problems Usually used in combo with another Substance use disorders – usually have mood/anxiety disorders ○ Some neg effects can stem from poor post-natal environments MATERNAL DISEASES Passed through 2 ways: placenta or during birthing process ○ Placenta: stop bacterial diseases not virus' ( smallpox. Measles, STIs HIV/AIDS, herpes simplex) Rubella German Measles ○ Viral; mild in older children/adults; severe in fetus ○ 1st tri = 50% birth defects + intellectual impairments ▪ Deafness, cataracts, heart, urinary, intestinal, bone defects ○ Infected during fetal period > defects ▪ Hearing loss/low weight still possible HIV/AIDS ○ Can be passed through birthing process, breastfeeding ○ 25% - dev AIDS symp ▪ Pneumonia/ meningitis ▪ Die by 3 ○ Health workers screen in pregnancy ▪ HIV + = given antiviral meds ( AZT); reduces risk of transmitting ~2% ○ HIV/AID infections ^% in African American pop ○ 800k babies infects yearly-> dev countries, meds aren't available MATERNAL DIET Under and overeating = health implications ( child + adult) Prenatal malnutrition and adult risks( exposed in 1st tri compared to exposed in 2nd or 3rd tri) ○ ^ obesity ○ ^Coronary heart disease ○ ^glucose intolerance ( lower insulin secretion) ○ T2 Diabetes ○ Insulin resistance ○ Hypertension Undernutrition = developmental programming ○ Lack of nutrition embryo = cells reprogrammed to hold onto nutrients as if food is scarce ▪ ^ obesity ▪ Long term health effects ^ risk CV disease, t2 diabetes Prenatal malnutrition can be overcome by effective intervention programs ○ WIC, UNICEF ▪ Helped 8-10 million women, children and infants ( 2010-2012) Reduced low birth weight, lower infant deaths, improved cog dev Overnutrition ○ Happens when mother gains too much weight during pregnancy or are overweight ○ ^ risk high weight baby ▪ >4kg @ birth -> likely to be overweight 6-13 ○ Obese mother -> baby tended to gain weight more rapidly and have ^ chances of being overweight ○ Disrupts energy balance regulation ▪ Baby ends up eating too much -> engrained in childhood + teen THE HEALTH OF FATHERS  Fathers health and age -> impacts prenatal development ○ Overeating just before puberty -> had sons/grandsons ^ risk of diabetes, CV disease, early death ○ Due to epigenetic chemical alterations that regular expression of genes on the Y chromosome ○ ^ age father = ^ schizophrenia, autism, reduces IQ/social functioning De Novo mutations = mutations present in child, but not parent ○ Occurs during gamete formation/fertilization ○ Fig. Possible reason for mutations in sperm = egg – produced once, sperm – regenerated 2x month DNA copied more in sperm cell formation -> ^ chance of new mutations Controversial - ^ in autism-related disorders = more older men are fathering children