Psychology Chapter 26-28 PDF

**Psychoanalytic Theories of Personality** 26.1.01 Psychoanalytic Theories of Personality **Sigmund Freud** As Lesson 1.1 introduces, Sigmund Freud\'s **psychoanalytic theory** focuses on the impact of **unconscious** factors (eg, drives, conflicts stemming from childhood) on human development an...

**Psychoanalytic Theories of Personality** 26.1.01 Psychoanalytic Theories of Personality **Sigmund Freud** As Lesson 1.1 introduces, Sigmund Freud\'s **psychoanalytic theory** focuses on the impact of **unconscious** factors (eg, drives, conflicts stemming from childhood) on human development and behavior. Freud asserted that the three personality structures---id, ego, and superego---exist at different levels of conscious awareness (Figure 26.1). **Figure 26.1** Sigmund Freud\'s model of personality and consciousness. The **id** is impulsive, irrational, and pleasure-seeking, the **ego** is realistic and acts as a mediator between the id and superego, and the **superego** is the idealistic moral conscience. Whereas the id is entirely unconscious (beyond conscious awareness), the ego and superego span the conscious, preconscious (just beneath conscious awareness), and unconscious mind. Freud asserted that personality results from conflict between inner desires and social restraints (eg, one\'s sense of right and wrong conflicting with one\'s impulses). One way the ego copes with this tension and protects itself from anxiety is through **defense mechanisms.** Defense mechanisms distort reality unconsciously and automatically. See Table 26.1 for a summary of selected common defense mechanisms. A diagram of an iceberg in water Description automatically generated Chapter 26: Personality Theories 149 **Table 26.1** Major defense mechanisms (incomplete list). **Carl Jung** Carl Jung was a neo-Freudian (early psychoanalyst) who stated that the mind contains both a personal unconscious (as described by Freud) and a shared, collective unconscious. The **collective unconscious** contains a store of inherited images, called **archetypes**, derived from our ancestors (eg, the figure of a wise old man is found in the folklore of many cultures). In Jung\'s theory, the **self** is seen as the place where the personal unconscious, the conscious mind, and the collective unconscious meet. The archetypes found in the collective unconscious apply to one\'s personality. For example, the shadow, which contains the undesirable and shameful aspects of oneself, resides in the unconscious. **Alfred Adler** Another neo-Freudian, Alfred Adler, emphasized the impact of children\'s early **feelings of inferiority** on their personality. Adler stated that children feel inferior to adults (eg, adults are physically larger), as well as feel inferior to their siblings according to their birth order. For example, Adler would say that oldest children often overachieve (for instance, in school) because they are overcompensating for feeling inferior to younger children, who often receive more attention from their parents (Figure 26.2).  Chapter 26: Personality Theories 150 **Figure 26.2** Selected aspects of Alfred Adler\'s theory of personalit **Humanistic Theories of Personality** 26.2.01 Humanistic Theories of Personality As Lesson 1.3 introduces, the **humanistic perspective** is based on the belief that humans are driven to achieve higher pursuits, such as **self-actualization** (ie, fulfilling one\'s greatest potential) and personal growth. Humanistic psychologists Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers described different factors that they believed influence an individual\'s ability to attain self-actualization. **Abraham Maslow** Humanistic psychologist Abraham Maslow proposed that humans are motivated to achieve needs in a hierarchy of importance (Figure 26.3). These needs are: Basic physiological needs, which include satisfying hunger, thirst, and fatigue (eg, a runner stops to drink water during a marathon) Safety needs, which describe the need to feel secure and out of danger (eg, a young adult moves from a high-crime city center to a low-crime suburb) Belongingness needs, which describe the need for love and community (eg, a teenager joins a social club to feel like they fit in with their peers) Esteem needs, which describe the need for achievement and the need to be valued (eg, pursuing higher education for a sense of accomplishment) Self-actualization needs, which describe the need for fulfillment and the need to realize one\'s potential (eg, a successful lawyer with rewarding relationships fulfills their full potential by creating lasting, positive change in their community) **Figure 26.3** Abraham Maslow\'s hierarchy of needs. A pyramid of maslows Description automatically generated Chapter 26: Personality Theories 152 According to Maslow, basic physiological needs must be met before psychological needs can be addressed, and in turn, psychological needs must be met before self-fulfillment needs can be addressed. Although Maslow believed that every person is capable of attaining self-actualization, he held that progress toward self-actualization would be thwarted by failure to attain lower needs. **Carl Rogers** Fellow humanistic psychologist Carl Rogers posited that **self-concept**, a person\'s ideas and feelings about who they are, is a primary part of personality. People whose *ideal self* (ie, the idea of who they should be) matches with their *actual* experiences will have a more positive self-concept. Positive self-concepts are linked to better functioning and health. Rogers also believed that individuals\' personal growth is influenced by their interactions with other people. Rogers described how **unconditional positive regard**, acceptance/support regardless of behavior, facilitates personal growth and progress toward self-actualization. Alternatively, receiving **conditional positive regard**, acceptance/support based on what a person does (eg, getting good grades), inhibits one\'s personal growth and progress toward self-actualization. Figure 26.4 depicts the interaction of some aspects of Carl Rogers\'s theory of personality. **Figure 26.4** Selected aspects of Carl Rogers\'s theory of personality **Trait Theories of Personality** 26.3.01 Trait Theories of Personality **Trait theory** describes personality as formed by enduring personal characteristics, or traits. **Traits**, which are stable over time, are the characteristic ways an individual thinks, feels, and acts. For example, an individual who is \"friendly\" will likely continue to act warm and affectionate (ie, friendly) to others (Figure 26.5). **Figure 26.5** Examples of personality traits. Paul Costa and Robert McCrae\'s **Big Five theory** is a trait theory that identifies five dimensions of personality: openness to experience (eg, curious, imaginative), extraversion (eg, outgoing, energetic), conscientiousness (eg, organized, responsible), agreeableness (eg, friendly, cooperative), and neuroticism (eg, moody, emotionally unstable). See Table 26.2 for a summary of these traits. **Table 26.2** Big Five personality traits. Trait theory suggests that personality is the result of a combination of traits that are relatively stable over time. However, trait theory does not account for external influences on personality or for the reasons underlying personality traits. Furthermore, trait theories are not very successful at predicting specific behaviors because they do not account for the impact of situational factors on behavior. For example, an introvert who generally avoids parties would be more likely to attend his wife\'s retirement party (ie, specific behavior).  A white grid with black text Description automatically generated **The Principles and Components of Stress** 27.1.01 Appraisal Theory **Appraisal theory** states that one\'s evaluation (ie, appraisal) of a stimulus determines one\'s emotional response (see Figure 27.1). In a primary appraisal, an individual classifies a stimulus as threatening, positive, or irrelevant. For a stimulus deemed threatening (ie, a stressor), a secondary appraisal occurs in which the individual evaluates whether their resources/abilities are sufficient to cope with the stressor. **Figure 27.1** Appraisal theory. 27.1.02 Types of Stressors **Stress** refers to a threatening or demanding stimulus that disturbs equilibrium in some way (eg, mentally, emotionally, physically). Stress can lead to high blood pressure, anxiety, headaches, and many other health problems. There are four major types of stressors (Figure 27.2): Daily hassles are common, everyday occurrences that affect few people and are irritating but are not major stressors (eg, driving in traffic). A personal life event is a major life transition that affects few people but is very stressful. Personal life events can be positive (eg, getting married) or negative (eg, a death in the family). Environmental (or ambient) stressors are large-scale (ie, affecting many people), minor, but persistent irritations (eg, pollution). Catastrophes are large-scale major events that affect many people (eg, natural disasters).  Chapter 27: Stress 156 **Figure 27.2** Types of stressors. Stress can result from the complex choices a person may face. Motivational conflict theory describes three inner conflicts regarding choices (Figure 27.3): **Approach-approach conflict** occurs when one decides between pursuing two incompatible goals that both have desirable outcomes (eg, going to a party or a movie). **Approach-avoidance conflict** occurs when one decides whether to pursue a goal that has both wanted and unwanted outcomes (eg, going on a trip is fun but also expensive). **Avoidance-avoidance conflict** occurs when one decides between two alternatives that both have unwanted outcomes (eg, doing chores or getting in trouble for not doing them). **Figure 27.3** Motivational conflict theory. A close-up of a chart Description automatically generated  **The Effects of Stress and Stress Management** 27.2.01 Effects of Stress **Physiological Response** Immediately after a stressor is detected, the sympathetic (\"fight or flight\") division of the autonomic nervous system (Concept 4.1.02) mobilizes the body for action. Sympathetic neurons stimulate the adrenal glands (endocrine organs on top of the kidneys) to secrete **norepinephrine** and **epinephrine** (Concept 4.2.03), which helps activate the body to deal with the stressor by increasing cardiac and respiratory activity, increasing blood flow to the skeletal muscles and decreasing digestive functions. Further, during stress, the hypothalamus causes the pituitary gland to release adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), a stress hormone. ACTH travels in the bloodstream to the adrenal glands, where it causes the release of the stress hormone cortisol that helps prepare the body for action by mobilizing energy stores and modifying immune and metabolic responses. The [general adaptation syndrome (GAS)](javascript:void(0)), proposed by Hans Selye, is a model describing how the body reacts to stress. According to this model, there are three stages of the stress response (Figure 27.4): The **alarm** stage occurs during the first few minutes of the stress response when a stressor triggers the sympathetic nervous system\'s fight-or-flight response (eg, increasing the heart rate and perspiration). The **resistance** stage can last for hours (eg, exercise), days (eg, final exams), or months (eg, preparing for a graduate school entrance exam). During this stage, the body attempts to establish a new equilibrium in response to an ongoing stressor. The **exhaustion** stage occurs if the stressor continues. Prolonged stress depletes energy and results in the body being more vulnerable to negative health effects (eg, depression, viral illness). Chapter 27: Stress 158 **Figure 27.4** Hans Selye's general adaptation syndrome. **Emotional and Behavioral Responses** Chronic stress can result in alterations to brain areas that are involved in behavior and emotion. The synaptic changes that occur in the hippocampus as a result of stress impair learning. In addition, chronic stress causes changes in the morphology and functioning of the amygdala and prefrontal cortex. For example, repeatedly stressed rats display behaviors consistent with increased anxiety. 27.2.02 Managing Stress Research indicates that relaxation, a physiological state of reduced arousal and sympathetic activity, is effective for reducing stress. Relaxation can be achieved through many different techniques (eg, massage, meditation). Meditation is a practice whereby individuals regulate their awareness and attention with the goal of achieving mental clarity and emotional calmness. Although meditation techniques vary, they can include focusing on one\'s own breathing or other present-moment stimuli (eg, the sound of rain), or mentally repeating a mantra (a short saying or thought). Neuroimaging studies have shown that meditation not only results in relaxation but also produces an altered state of consciousness, demonstrated by an increase in [alpha brain waves](javascript:void(0)). Regular meditation provides benefits outside of the meditative state, such as improved attention and emotional self-regulation Chapter 28: Theories of Attitude and Behavior Change 159 Lesson 28.1 **Theories of Attitude and Behavior Change** 28.1.01 Elaboration Likelihood Model As Concept 25.1.01 introduces, persuasion involves convincing people to change their attitudes or behavior. The **elaboration likelihood model of persuasion** (Figure 28.1) describes two routes by which a message can cause attitude change in the receiver (the person for whom the message was intended): The **peripheral route** to persuasion uses superficial tactics (eg, attractive spokesmodel) to influence attitudes or behaviors. The **central route** seeks attitude change after careful consideration of the content of a message. Using the central route to persuade someone would involve making a well-reasoned argument based on facts and evidence. **Figure 28.1** Elaboration likelihood model example. Either route can result in persuasion, but the central route is more effective when people are willing and able to pay attention to the facts, whereas the peripheral route is more effective when people are not paying close attention to the content of the message. 28.1.02 Social Cognitive Theory According to **social cognitive theory**, people\'s behavior and attitudes are learned through **vicarious learning**: observing a model (someone else, such as a friend) engage in a behavior and receive consequences for that behavior. Depending on the outcome, the observer may replicate or avoid the behavior of the model. For example, a soccer player is less likely to commit a foul after watching a teammate get penalized by the referee for committing the same foul