Theories of Personality (10th Edition) PDF

 Tenth Edition Theories of Personality Gregory J. Feist, PhD San Jose State University Tomi-Ann Roberts, PhD Colorado College Jess Feist McNesse State University ...

 Tenth Edition Theories of Personality Gregory J. Feist, PhD San Jose State University Tomi-Ann Roberts, PhD Colorado College Jess Feist McNesse State University  Final PDF to printer THEORIES OF PERSONALITY Published by McGraw-Hill Education, 2 Penn Plaza, New York, NY 10121. Copyright © 2021 by McGraw-Hill  Education. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education, including, but not limited to, in any network or other electronic storage or transmission, or broadcast for distance learning. Some ancillaries, including electronic and print components, may not be available to customers outside the United States. This book is printed on acid-free paper. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 LCR 24 23 22 21 20 ISBN 978-1-260-57544-6 MHID 1-260-57544-6 Cover Image: ©Shutterstock/Jeremy Richards All credits appearing on page or at the end of the book are considered to be an extension of the copyright page. The Internet addresses listed in the text were accurate at the time of publication. The inclusion of a website does not indicate an endorsement by the authors or McGraw-Hill Education, and McGraw-Hill Education does not guarantee the accuracy of the information presented at these sites. mheducation.com/highered fei75446_fm_ise.indd ii 12/17/19 01:10 PM About the Authors Gregory J. Feist is a Professor of Psychology in Personality at San Jose State University. He has also taught at the College of William & Mary and University of California, Davis. He received his PhD in Personality Psychology in 1991 from the University of ­California at Berkeley and his undergraduate degree in 1985 from the ­University of Massachusetts–Amherst. He is widely published in the psychology of creativity, the psychology of science, and the development of scientific talent. One major focus of his is establishing the psychology of science as an independent study of science, along the lines of history, philosophy, and sociology of science. His major efforts toward this end are: ­Psychology of Science and the Origins of the Scientific Mind (2006, Yale ­University Press), which was awarded the 2007 William James Book Prize by the Division of General Psychology, American Psychological Association (APA); and being founding president of the “International Society for the Psychology of Science and Technology.” His research in creativity and personality has been recog- nized with the Berlyne Award from the Division for Psychol- ogy of Aesthetics, Creativity and the Arts (Division 10) of APA. Feist is former president of APA’s Division 10 and has served on editorial boards. His teaching efforts have been recognized Gregory J. Feist by outstanding teaching awards from both UC Berkely and UC Davis. Feist is the co-author of Psychology: Perspectives and Con- nections (McGraw-Hill, 4th edition) and co-editor of the Hand- book of the Psychology of Science (Springer Publications) and Cambridge Handbook of Creativity and Personality. iii iv About the Authors Tomi-Ann Roberts earned her BA from Smith College and her PhD from Stanford University. She is a Professor of Psychology at Colorado College. Her research interests include the sexual objectification of girls and women, self-objectification, and the consequences of these for physical, emotional, and cognitive well-being. The first paper she coauthored on this topic, Objecti- fication Theory, is the most cited article in over the 40-year his- tory of the journal Psychology of Women Quarterly. In addition to her scholarly publications, she served on several American Psychological Association task forces, including Sexualization of Girls and Educating through Feminist Research. She served as president of the Society for Menstrual Cycle Research from 2017–2019. She leverages psychological science as an expert Tomi-Ann Roberts witness and consultant in cases involving objectification as a form of sexism and gender discrimination. Jess Feist was Professor of Psychology at McNeese State Uni- versity in Lake Charles, Louisiana from 1964 until his death in 2015. Besides coauthoring Theories of Personality, he coau- thored with Linda Brannon, Health Psychology: An Introduction to Behavior and Health. He earned his undergraduate degree from St. Mary of the Plains and graduate degrees from Wich- ita State University and the University of Kansas. His research interest was in early childhood recollections. Jess Feist Contents PART I Introduction 1 PART II Psychodynamic Theories 19 CHAPTER 1 Introduction to Personality Theory 2 CHAPTER 2 Freud: Psychoanalysis 20 What Is Personality? 3 Overview of Psychoanalytic Theory 21 What Is a Theory? 5 Biography of Sigmund Freud 22 Theory Defined 5 Levels of Mental Life 28 Theory and Its Relatives 5 Unconscious 28 Philosophy 5 Preconscious 29 Speculation 6 Conscious 30 Hypothesis 6 Provinces of the Mind 31 Taxonomy 7 The Id 32 Why Different Theories? 7 The Ego 33 Perspectives in Theories of The Superego 34 Personality 7 Psychodynamic Theories 8 Dynamics of Personality 36 Humanistic-Existential Theories 8 Drives 36 Dispositional Theories 8 Sex 36 Biological-Evolutionary Theories 8 Aggression 37 Learning-(Social) Cognitive Theories 8 Anxiety 38 Theorists’ Personalities and Their Theories Defense Mechanisms 39 of Personality 10 Repression 39 What Makes a Theory Useful? 11 Reaction Formation 40 Generates Research 12 Displacement 40 Is Falsifiable 12 Fixation 41 Organizes Data 13 Regression 41 Guides Action 13 Projection 41 Is Internally Consistent 14 Introjection 42 Is Parsimonious 14 Sublimation 42 Dimensions for a Concept of Humanity 14 Stages of Development 43 Research in Personality Infantile Period 43 Theory 16 Oral Phase 43 v vi Contents Anal Phase 44 Social Interest 82 Phallic Phase 45 Origins of Social Interest 83 Latency Period 50 Importance of Social Interest 84 Genital Period 50 Style of Life 85 Maturity 51 Creative Power 86 Applications of Psychoanalytic Abnormal Development 87 Theory 52 General Description 87 Freud’s Early Therapeutic Technique 52 External Factors in Maladjustment 87 Freud’s Later Therapeutic Technique 53 Exaggerated Physical Deficiencies 88 Dream Analysis 54 Pampered Style of Life 88 Freudian Slips 56 Neglected Style of Life 88 Related Research 57 Safeguarding Tendencies 89 Unconscious Mental Processing 58 Excuses 89 Pleasure and the Id, Inhibition and Aggression 89 the Ego 59 Withdrawal 90 Repression, Inhibition, and Defense Masculine Protest 91 Mechanisms 60 Origins of the Masculine Protest 91 Research on Dreams 61 Adler, Freud, and the Masculine Protest 92 Critique of Freud 63 Applications of Individual Psychology 92 Did Freud Understand Women, Gender, Family Constellation 92 and Sexuality? 63 Early Recollections 94 Was Freud a Scientist? 65 Dreams 95 Concept of Humanity 67 Psychotherapy 96 Related Research 97 CHAPTER 3 Adler: Individual Birth Order, Intelligence, Academic Psychology 72 Achievement, and Personality 97 Early Recollections and Career Choice 99 Overview of Individual Psychology 73 Distinguishing Narcissism as Striving for Biography of Alfred Adler 74 Superiority versus Self-Esteem as Striving Introduction to Adlerian Theory 77 for Success 101 Striving for Success or Superiority 77 Critique of Adler 102 The Final Goal 78 Concept of Humanity 103 The Striving Force as Compensation 79 Striving for Personal Superiority 79 CHAPTER 4 Jung: Analytical Striving for Success 80 Psychology 107 Subjective Perceptions 80 Overview of Analytical Psychology 108 Fictionalism 80 Biography of Carl Jung 109 Physical Inferiorities 81 Levels of the Psyche 113 Unity and Self-Consistency of Personality 81 Conscious 113 Organ Dialect 82 Personal Unconscious 113 Conscious and Unconscious 82 Collective Unconscious 114  Contents vii Archetypes 115 Empirical Criticism 142 Persona 116 The MBTI Remains Popular Despite Shadow 117 Criticisms 142 Anima 117 Critique of Jung 143 Animus 118 Concept of Humanity 145 Great Mother 119 Wise Old Man 119 CHAPTER 5 Klein: Object Relations Hero 120 Theory 149 Self 120 Overview of Object Relations Theory 150 Dynamics of Personality 123 Biography of Melanie Klein 151 Causality and Teleology 123 Introduction to Object Relations Theory 153 Progression and Regression 124 Psychic Life of the Infant 154 Psychological Types 124 Phantasies 154 Attitudes 124 Objects 155 Introversion 124 Extraversion 125 Positions 155 Functions 126 Paranoid-Schizoid Position 155 Thinking 126 Depressive Position 156 Feeling 127 Psychic Defense Mechanisms 157 Sensing 128 Introjection 157 Intuiting 128 Projection 158 Development of Personality 129 Splitting 158 Stages of Development 129 Projective Identification 158 Childhood 130 Internalizations 159 Youth 130 Ego 159 Middle Life 131 Superego 160 Old Age 131 Oedipus Complex 160 Self-Realization 132 Female Oedipal Development 161 Jung’s Methods of Male Oedipal Development 161 Investigation 132 Later Views on Object Relations 162 Word Association Test 133 Margaret Mahler’s View 162 Dream Analysis 133 Heinz Kohut’s View 164 Active Imagination 135 John Bowlby’s Attachment Theory 166 Psychotherapy 137 Mary Ainsworth and the Strange Situation 167 Related Research 138 Psychotherapy 168 Personality Type and Related Research 169 Leadership 138 Childhood Trauma and Adult Object Personality Type Among Clergy and Relations 169 Churchgoers 139 Attachment Theory and Adult Relationships 170 A Critical Look at the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) 140 Critique of Object Relations Theory 173 Theoretical Criticism 141 Concept of Humanity 174 viii Contents CHAPTER 6 Horney: Psychoanalytic Infancy 215 Social Theory 179 Oral-Sensory Mode 215 Basic Trust versus Basic Mistrust 215 Overview of Psychoanalytic Social Hope: The Basic Strength of Infancy 216 Theory 180 Early Childhood 216 Biography of Karen Horney 181 Anal–Urethral–Muscular Mode 216 Introduction to Psychoanalytic Social Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt 217 Theory 183 Will: The Basic Strength of Early Childhood 217 Horney and Freud Compared 183 Play Age 217 The Impact of Culture 183 Genital-Locomotor Mode 218 The Importance of Childhood Initiative versus Guilt 218 Experiences 184 Purpose: The Basic Strength Basic Hostility and Basic Anxiety 184 of the Play Age 218 Compulsive Drives 186 School Age 219 Neurotic Needs 186 Latency 219 Industry versus Inferiority 219 Neurotic Trends 187 Competence: The Basic Strength of Moving Toward People 189 the School Age 220 Moving Against People 189 Adolescence 220 Moving Away From People 190 Puberty 220 Intrapsychic Conflicts 191 Identity versus Identity Confusion 220 The Idealized Self-Image 192 Fidelity: The Basic Strength The Neurotic Search for Glory 192 of Adolescence 222 Neurotic Claims 193 Young Adulthood 222 Neurotic Pride 194 Genitality 222 Self-Hatred 194 Intimacy versus Isolation 223 Feminine Psychology 195 Love: The Basic Strength of Young Adulthood 223 Psychotherapy 198 Adulthood 223 Related Research 199 Procreativity 224 The Neurotic Search for Glory in the Lab 199 Generativity versus Stagnation 224 Can Neuroticism Ever Be a Good Thing? 200 Care: The Basic Strength of Adulthood 224 Critique of Horney 202 Old Age 225 Concept of Humanity 203 Generalized Sensuality 225 Integrity versus Despair 225 Wisdom: The Basic Strength CHAPTER 7 Erikson: Post-Freudian of Old Age 226 Theory 206 Summary of the Life Cycle 226 Overview of Post-Freudian Theory 207 Erikson’s Methods of Investigation 227 Biography of Erik Erikson 208 Anthropological Studies 227 The Ego in Post-Freudian Theory 210 Psychohistory 228 Society’s Influence 211 Related Research 230 Epigenetic Principle 211 Adolescent Identity and the Internet 230 Stages of Psychosocial Development 213 The Development of Gender Identity 232  Contents ix Impact of Nature and Nurture on Gender Social Character in a Mexican Village 259 Identity Formation 233 A Psychohistorical Study of Hitler 261 Social Pressure to Conform to Typical Gender Related Research 262 Identity 234 Testing the Assumptions of Fromm’s Age of Gender Identity Disclosure and Social Marketing Character 262 Networks 234 Estrangement from Culture and Well-Being 264 Critique of Erikson 236 Authoritarianism and Fear 265 Concept of Humanity 237 Critique of Fromm 266 CHAPTER 8 Fromm: Humanistic Concept of Humanity 267 Psychoanalysis 242 Overview of Humanistic PART III Humanistic/Existential Psychoanalysis 243 Theories 271 Biography of Erich Fromm 244 Fromm’s Basic Assumptions 246 CHAPTER 9 Maslow: Holistic-Dynamic Theory 272 Human Needs 247 Relatedness 247 Overview of Holistic-Dynamic Theory 273 Transcendence 248 Biography of Abraham H. Maslow 274 Rootedness 249 Maslow’s View of Motivation 277 Sense of Identity 250 Hierarchy of Needs 278 Frame of Orientation 250 Physiological Needs 278 Summary of Human Needs 251 Safety Needs 279 The Burden of Freedom 251 Love and Belongingness Needs 280 Mechanisms of Escape 252 Esteem Needs 281 Authoritarianism 252 Self-Actualization Needs 281 Destructiveness 252 Aesthetic Needs 282 Conformity 253 Cognitive Needs 282 Positive Freedom 253 Neurotic Needs 283 Character Orientations 253 General Discussion of Needs 283 Nonproductive Orientations 254 Reversed Order of Needs 284 Receptive 254 Unmotivated Behavior 284 Exploitative 254 Expressive and Coping Behavior 284 Hoarding 254 Deprivation of Needs 284 Marketing 255 Instinctoid Nature of Needs 285 Comparison of Higher and Lower The Productive Orientation 256 Needs 285 Personality Disorders 256 Self-Actualization 286 Necrophilia 257 Maslow’s Quest for the Self-Actualizing Malignant Narcissism 257 Person 286 Incestuous Symbiosis 257 Criteria for Self-Actualization 287 Psychotherapy 259 Values of Self-Actualizers 288 Fromm’s Methods of Investigation 259 Characteristics of Self-Actualizing People 288 x Contents More Efficient Perception of Reality 289 Becoming a Person 318 Acceptance of Self, Others, and Nature 289 Barriers to Psychological Health 319 Spontaneity, Simplicity, and Naturalness 290 Conditions of Worth 319 Problem-Centering 290 Incongruence 320 The Need for Privacy 290 Defensiveness 321 Autonomy 290 Disorganization 321 Continued Freshness of Appreciation 291 Psychotherapy 322 The Peak Experience 291 Conditions 322 Gemeinschaftsgefühl 292 Counselor Congruence 323 Profound Interpersonal Relations 292 Unconditional Positive Regard 324 The Democratic Character Structure 293 Empathic Listening 325 Discrimination Between Means and Ends 293 Process 326 Philosophical Sense of Humor 293 Stages of Therapeutic Change 326 Creativeness 294 Theoretical Explanation for Therapeutic Resistance to Enculturation 294 Change 327 Love, Sex, and Self-Actualization 294 Outcomes 327 Maslow’s Psychology and Philosophy The Person of Tomorrow 328 of Science 295 Philosophy of Science 330 Measuring Self-Actualization 296 The Chicago Studies 331 The Jonah Complex 298 Hypotheses 331 Psychotherapy 299 Method 331 Related Research 299 Findings 332 Empirical Testing and an Evolutionary Update Summary of Results 333 to the Hierarchy of Needs 300 Related Research 334 Positive Psychology 302 Real-Ideal Self Discrepancy, Online Gaming, Critique of Maslow 303 and the Brain 334 Concept of Humanity 305 Motivation and Pursuing One’s Goals 337 CHAPTER 10 Rogers: Person-Centered Critique of Rogers 339 Theory 309 Concept of Humanity 340 Overview of Client-Centered Theory 310 Biography of Carl Rogers 311 CHAPTER 11 May: Existential Person-Centered Theory 314 Psychology 345 Basic Assumptions 314 Overview of Existential Psychology 346 Formative Tendency 314 Actualizing Tendency 315 Biography of Rollo May 347 The Self and Self-Actualization 316 Background of Existentialism 350 The Self-Concept 316 What Is Existentialism? 350 The Ideal Self 317 Basic Concepts 351 Awareness 317 Being-in-the-World 351 Levels of Awareness 318 Nonbeing 352 Denial of Positive Experiences 318 The Case of Philip 354  Confirming Pages Contents xi Anxiety 354 What Is Personality? 382 Normal Anxiety 355 What Is the Role of Conscious Motivation? 383 Neurotic Anxiety 355 What Are the Characteristics of a Healthy Person? 383 Guilt 356 Structure of Personality 385 Intentionality 357 Personal Dispositions 385 Care, Love, and Will 357 Levels of Personal Dispositions 386 Union of Love and Will 358 Motivational and Stylistic Dispositions 387 Forms of Love 359 Proprium 387 Sex 359 Motivation 388 Eros 359 A Theory of Motivation 388 Philia 359 Functional Autonomy 389 Agape 360 Perseverative Functional Autonomy 390 Freedom and Destiny 360 Propriate Functional Autonomy 391 Freedom Defined 360 Criterion for Functional Autonomy 391 Forms of Freedom 360 Processes That Are Not Functionally Existential Freedom 360 Autonomous 392 Essential Freedom 361 The Study of the Individual 392 What Is Destiny? 361 Morphogenic Science 392 Philip’s Destiny 362 The Diaries of Marion Taylor 393 The Power of Myth 362 Letters From Jenny 394 Psychopathology 364 Related Research 396 Psychotherapy 364 Understanding and Reducing Prejudice 396 Related Research 366 Intrinsic and Extrinsic Religious Orientation 399 Threats in the Umwelt: Mortality Salience and Religious Motivation and Mental Health 400 Denial of Our Animal Nature 366 Extending Allport’s Religious Motivation to Other Religions 400 Finding Meaning in the Mitwelt: Attachment and Close Relationships 368 Critique of Allport 402 Growth in the Eigenwelt: There Is an Upside Concept of Humanity 404 to Mortality Awareness 369 Critique of May 371 CHAPTER 13 McCrae and Costa’s Five-Factor Trait Theory 408 Concept of Humanity 372 Overview of Trait and Factor Theories 409 PART IV Dispositional Theories 377 The Pioneering Work of Raymond B. Cattell 410 CHAPTER 12 Allport: Psychology Basics of Factor Analysis 411 of the Individual 378 The Big Five: Taxonomy or Theory? 413 Overview of Allport’s Psychology Biographies of Robert R. McCrae and of the Individual 379 Paul T. Costa, Jr. 413 Biography of Gordon Allport 380 In Search of the Big Five 414 Allport’s Approach to Personality Five Factors Found 415 Theory 382 Description of the Five Factors 416 fei75766_fm_i-xx.indd xi 03/02/20 01:48 PM xii Contents Evolution of the Five-Factor Theory 418 Critique of Eysenck’s Biologically Units of the Five-Factor Theory 419 Based Theory 457 Core Components of Personality 419 Concept of Humanity 458 Peripheral Components 421 Basic Postulates 422 CHAPTER 15 Buss: Evolutionary Theory Postulates for Basic Tendencies 423 of Personality 463 Postulates for Characteristic Adaptations 424 Overview of Evolutionary Theory 464 Related Research 424 Biography of David Buss 466 Consistency and Change of Personality over Principles of Evolutionary the Lifetime 425 Psychology 467 Personality Consistency 425 Evolutionary Theory of Personality 468 Personality Change 425 The Nature and Nurture of Measuring the Big Five with Our Digital Personality 469 Footprints 427 Adaptive Problems and their Solutions Critique of Trait and Factor Theories 428 (Mechanisms) 470 Concept of Humanity 430 Evolved Mechanisms 472 Motivation and Emotion as Evolved Mechanisms 472 PART V Biological/Evolutionary Personality Traits as Evolved Mechanisms 473 Theories 435 Origins of Individual Differences 475 CHAPTER 14 Eysenck’s Biologically Environmental Sources 475 Based Factor Theory 436 Heritable/Genetic Sources 476 Nonadapative Sources 476 Overview of Biologically Based Maladaptive Sources 476 Trait Theory 437 Neo-Bussian Evolutionary Theories Biography of Hans J. Eysenck 438 of Personality 477 Eysenck’s Factor Theory 441 Common Misunderstandings Criteria for Identifying Factors 442 in Evolutionary Theory 478 Hierarchy of Behavior Organization 442 Evolution Implies Genetic Determinism Dimensions of Personality 443 (Behavior as Set in Stone and Void of Influence from the Environment) 478 Extraversion 445 Executing Adaptations Requires Conscious Neuroticism 447 Mechanisms 479 Psychoticism 448 Mechanisms Are Optimally Designed 479 Measuring Personality 449 Related Research 480 Biological Bases of Personality 450 Evolutionary Origins of Personality: Traits as Personality as a Predictor 451 Related to Fitness 480 Personality and Behavior 451 Genetics and Personality 483 Personality and Disease 452 Animal Personality 485 Related Research 453 Critique of Evolutionary Theory The Biological Basis of Extraversion 453 of Personality 487 The Biological Basis of Neuroticism 456 Concept of Humanity 488  Contents xiii PART VI Learning-Cognitive Theories 495 Related Research 523 How Conditioning Affects Personality 523 CHAPTER 16 Skinner: Behavioral How Personality Affects Conditioning 524 Analysis 496 Mutual Influence Between Personality and Conditioning 526 Overview of Behavioral Analysis 497 Critique of Skinner 528 Biography of B. F. Skinner 498 Concept of Humanity 529 Precursors to Skinner’s Scientific Behaviorism 501 CHAPTER 17 Bandura: Social Cognitive Scientific Behaviorism 502 Theory 534 Philosophy of Science 503 Overview of Social Cognitive Theory 535 Characteristics of Science 503 Biography of Albert Bandura 536 Conditioning 504 Learning 537 Classical Conditioning 505 Observational Learning 538 Operant Conditioning 506 Modeling 538 Shaping 506 Processes Governing Observational Reinforcement 508 Learning 539 Punishment 509 Enactive Learning 540 Conditioned and Generalized Reinforcers 510 Triadic Reciprocal Causation 541 Schedules of Reinforcement 511 Extinction 513 An Example of Triadic Reciprocal Causation 542 The Human Organism 513 Chance Encounters and Fortuitous Natural Selection 514 Events 543 Cultural Evolution 515 Human Agency 544 Inner States 515 Core Features of Human Agency 544 Self-Awareness 515 Self-Efficacy 545 Drives 516 What Is Self-Efficacy? 545 Emotions 516 What Contributes to Self-Efficacy? 547 Purpose and Intention 516 Proxy Agency 549 Complex Behavior 517 Collective Efficacy 549 Higher Mental Processes 517 Self-Regulation 550 Creativity 517 Unconscious Behavior 518 External Factors in Self-Regulation 551 Dreams 518 Internal Factors in Self-Regulation 551 Social Behavior 519 Self-Observation 551 Control of Human Behavior 519 Judgmental Process 552 Social Control 519 Self-Reaction 553 Self-Control 520 Self-Regulation Through Moral Agency 553 Redefine the Behavior 554 The Unhealthy Personality 521 Disregard or Distort the Consequences Counteracting Strategies 521 of Behavior 555 Inappropriate Behaviors 522 Dehumanize or Blame the Victims 555 Psychotherapy 522 Displace or Diffuse Responsibility 556 xiv Contents Dysfunctional Behavior 556 Biography of Walter Mischel 589 Depression 556 Background of the Cognitive-Affective Phobias 556 Personality System 591 Aggression 557 Consistency Paradox 591 Therapy 559 Person-Situation Interaction 592 Related Research 560 Cognitive-Affective Personality System 593 Self-Efficacy and Diabetes 560 Behavior Prediction 594 Moral Disengagement and Bullying 561 Situation Variables 594 Social Cognitive Theory “Goes Global” 563 Cognitive-Affective Units 596 Critique of Bandura 563 Encoding Strategies 596 Competencies and Self-Regulatory Concept of Humanity 564 Strategies 596 Expectancies and Beliefs 597 CHAPTER 18 Rotter and Mischel: Goals and Values 598 Cognitive Social Learning Theory 569 Affective Responses 599 Overview of Cognitive Social Learning Related Research 600 Theory 570 Internalized Racial Oppression and Locus of Control 600 Biography of Julian Rotter 571 Person-Situation Interaction 601 Introduction to Rotter’s Social Learning Theory 572 Marshmallows and Self-Regulation Across the Lifespan 602 Predicting Specific Behaviors 573 Critique of Cognitive Social Learning Behavior Potential 573 Theory 604 Expectancy 574 Concept of Humanity 605 Reinforcement Value 574 Psychological Situation 575 Basic Prediction Formula 576 CHAPTER 19 Kelly: Psychology of Personal Constructs 610 Predicting General Behaviors 577 Generalized Expectancies 577 Overview of Personal Construct Theory 611 Needs 577 Biography of George Kelly 612 Categories of Needs 578 Kelly’s Philosophical Position 613 Need Components 579 Person as Scientist 614 General Prediction Formula 580 Scientist as Person 614 Internal and External Control Constructive Alternativism 614 of Reinforcement 582 Personal Constructs 615 Interpersonal Trust Scale 584 Basic Postulate 616 Maladaptive Behavior 585 Supporting Corollaries 617 Psychotherapy 586 Similarities Among Events 617 Changing Goals 586 Differences Among People 617 Eliminating Low Expectancies 587 Relationships Among Constructs 618 Introduction to Mischel’s Personality Dichotomy of Constructs 619 Theory 589 Choice Between Dichotomies 619  Contents xv Range of Convenience 620 The Rep Test and Teens with Autism Spectrum Experience and Learning 621 Disorder 629 Adaptation to Experience 621 Applying Personal Construct Theory to Incompatible Constructs 622 Intra-Personal Questions of Identity 630 Similarities Among People 622 Understanding Internalized Prejudice Through Personal Construct Theory 631 Social Processes 623 Reducing the Threat to Feminist Applications of Personal Construct Identification 632 Theory 624 Personal Constructs and the Big Abnormal Development 624 Five 633 Threat 625 Critique of Kelly 634 Fear 625 Concept of Humanity 635 Anxiety 625 Guilt 626 Psychotherapy 626 Glossary G-1 The Rep Test 627 Name Index N-1 Related Research 629 Subject Index S-1 Preface What makes people behave as they do? Are people ordinarily aware of what they are doing, or are their behaviors the result of hidden, unconscious motives? Are some people naturally good and others basically evil? Or do all people have potential to be either good or evil? Is human conduct largely a product of nature, or is it shaped mostly by environmental influences? Can people freely choose to mold their person- ality, or are their lives determined by forces beyond their control? Are people best described by their similarities, or is uniqueness the dominant characteristic of humans? What causes some people to develop disordered personalities whereas others seem to grow toward psychological health? These questions have been asked and debated by philosophers, scholars, and religious thinkers for sev- eral thousand years; but most of these discussions were based on personal opinions that were colored by politi- cal, economic, religious, and social considerations. Then, near the end of the 19th century, some progress was made in humanity’s ability to organize, explain, and predict its own actions. The emergence of psychology as the scientific study of human behavior marked the beginning of a more systematic approach to the study of human personality. Early personality theorists, such as Sigmund Freud, Alfred Adler, and Carl Jung, relied mostly on clini- cal observations to construct models of human behavior. Although their data were more systematic and reli- able than those of earlier observers, these theorists continued to rely on their own individualized way of looking at things, and thus they arrived at different conceptions of the nature of humanity. Later personality theorists tended to use more empirical studies to learn about human behavior. These the- orists developed tentative models, tested hypotheses, and then reformulated their models. In other words, they applied the tools of scientific inquiry and scientific theory to the area of human personality. Science, of course, is not divorced from speculation, imagination, and creativity, all of which are needed to formulate theories. Each of the personality theorists discussed in this book has evolved a theory based both on empirical observations and on imaginative speculation. Moreover, each theory is a reflection of the personality of its creator. Thus, the different theories discussed in these pages are a reflection of the unique cultural background, family experiences, and professional training of their originators. The usefulness of each theory, however, is not only evaluated on the personality of its author but also on its ability to (1) generate research, (2) offer itself to falsification, (3) integrate existing empirical knowledge, and (4) suggest practical answers to every- day problems. Therefore, we evaluate each of the theories discussed in this book on the basis of these four criteria as well as on (5) its internal consistency and (6) its simplicity. In addition, some personality theories have fertilized other fields, such as sociology, education, psychotherapy, advertising, management, mythology, counseling, art, literature, and religion. The Tenth Edition The tenth edition of Theories of Personality continues to emphasize the strong and unique features of earlier editions, namely the overviews near the beginning of each chapter, a lively writing style, the thought-­ provoking concepts of humanity as seen by each theorist, and the structured evaluations of each theory. Annotated ­suggested readings are now available online with Connect®, McGraw-Hill Education’s integrated assignment and assessment platform. As were the previous editions, the tenth edition is based on original sources and the most recent formulation of each theory. Early concepts and models are included only if they retained their importance in the later theory or if they provided vital groundwork for ­understanding the final theory. For select chapters, we have developed a Web-enhanced feature titled Beyond Biography, which is available through Connect. xvi  Preface xvii The tenth edition of Theories of Personality uses clear, concise, and comprehensible language as well as an informal writing style. The book is designed for undergraduate students and should be understood by those with a minimum background in psychology. However, we have tried not to oversimplify or violate the theo- rist’s original meaning. We have made ample comparisons between and among theorists where appropriate and have included many examples to illustrate how the different theories can be applied to ordinary day-to-day situations. A glossary at the end of the book contains definitions of technical terms. These same terms also appear in boldface within the text. The present edition continues to provide comprehensive coverage of the most influential theorists of personality. It emphasizes normal personality, although we have also included brief discussions on abnormality, as well as methods of psychotherapy, when appropriate. Because each theory is an ­expression of its builder’s unique view of the world and of humanity, we include ample biographical information of each theorist so that readers will have an opportunity to become acquainted with both the theory and the theorist. What’s New? In the tenth edition, we have made changes that both add to and build upon previous editions. In order to provide a more integrative and broad overview of the book, we have added a new section in Chapter 1 that describes and summarizes the five major theoretical perspectives: psychodynamic, humanistic-existential, dispo- sitional, biological-evolutionary, and learning (social)-cognitive. This overview not only provides a roadmap for the book but also helps students with the “big picture” of what theories of personality are and how they differ on fundamental assumptions. The psychodynamic theorists are Freud, Adler, Jung, Klein, Horney, Fromm, and Erikson. Humanistic-existential theorists include Maslow, Rogers, and May. Next, the dispositional theorists covered are Allport, and McCrae and Costa, followed by the biological-evolutionary theorists Eysenck and Buss. Finally, the last perspective is the learning (social)-cognitive theorists Skinner, Bandura, Rotter, Mischel, and Kelly. We arrange the five perspectives in this sequence for historical reasons, moving generally from the oldest to the newest to also provide students with a sense of change and progression in personality theory. Also new to Chapters 1 and 13 (McCrae & Costa) is the research and theory using social media “footprints” as a way of assessing personality. Our personalities influence whether and how we use social media, and our digital behavior reflects those differences in personality. Another set of additions to the 10th edition is new research that examined whether Maslow ever created his well-known “pyramid” model of hierarchy of needs (he did not) and new measures of Self-Actualization in Chapter 9. As with each new edition, we have also updated the “Recent Research” sections of each of the theories. For example, recent research has lent ­support to Buss’s theory of the evolutionary origins of personality traits, such as extraver- sion, conscientiousness, and neuroticism. Bandura’s theory has stimulated research reporting that children who bully are most likely to engage in “moral disengagement”—that is, they minimize the consequences of their actions and do not consider what they are doing as harmful. The tenth edition of Theories of Personality is now available online with Connect, McGraw-Hill ­Education’s integrated assignment and assessment platform. Connect also offers SmartBook for the new edition, which is the first adaptive reading experience proven to improve grades and help students study more effectively. All of the title’s website and ancillary content is also available through Connect, ­including: A full Test Bank of multiple choice questions that test students on central concepts and ideas in each chapter. An Instructor’s Manual for each chapter with full chapter outlines, sample test questions, and discus- sion topics. A Study Guide which includes learning objectives and chapter summaries. In addition, it contains a variety of test items, including fill-in-the-blanks, true–false, multiple-choice, and short-answer questions.  ® FOR INSTRUCTORS You’re in the driver’s seat. Want to build your own course? No problem. Prefer to use our turnkey, prebuilt course? Easy. Want to make changes throughout the semester? 65% Sure. And you’ll save time with Connect’s auto-grading too. Less Time Grading They’ll thank you for it. Adaptive study resources like SmartBook® 2.0 help your students be better prepared in less time. You can transform your class time from dull definitions to dynamic debates. Find out more about the powerful personalized learning experience available in SmartBook 2.0 at www.mheducation.com/highered/ connect/smartbook Laptop: McGraw-Hill; Woman/dog: George Doyle/Getty Images Make it simple, Solutions for your make it affordable. challenges. Connect makes it easy with seamless A product isn’t a solution. Real integration using any of the major solutions are affordable, reliable, Learning Management Systems— and come with training and Blackboard®, Canvas, and D2L, among ongoing support when you need it others—to let you organize your course and how you want it. Our Customer in one convenient location. Give your Experience Group can also help students access to digital materials at you troubleshoot tech problems— a discount with our inclusive access although Connect’s 99% uptime program. Ask your McGraw-Hill means you might not need to call representative for more information. them. See for yourself at status. mheducation.com Padlock: Jobalou/Getty Images Checkmark: Jobalou/Getty Images  FOR STUDENTS Effective, efficient studying. Connect helps you be more productive with your study time and get better grades using tools like SmartBook 2.0, which highlights key concepts and creates a personalized study plan. Connect sets you up for success, so you walk into class with confidence and walk out with better grades. Study anytime, anywhere. “I really liked this Download the free ReadAnywhere app and access your app—it made it easy online eBook or SmartBook 2.0 assignments when it’s to study when you convenient, even if you’re offline. And since the app don't have your text- automatically syncs with your eBook and SmartBook 2.0 assignments in Connect, all of your work is available book in front of you.” every time you open it. Find out more at www.mheducation.com/readanywhere - Jordan Cunningham, Eastern Washington University No surprises. The Connect Calendar and Reports tools keep you on track with the work you need to get done and your assignment scores. Life gets busy; Connect tools help you keep learning through it all. Calendar: owattaphotos/Getty Images Learning for everyone. McGraw-Hill works directly with Accessibility Services Departments and faculty to meet the learning needs of all students. Please contact your Accessibility Services office and ask them to email [email protected], or visit www.mheducation.com/about/accessibility for more information. Top: Jenner Images/Getty Images, Left: Hero Images/Getty Images, Right: Hero Images/Getty Images xx Preface Acknowledgments Finally, we wish to acknowledge our gratitude to the many people who have contributed to the completion of this book. First of all, we are grateful for the valuable help given by those people who reviewed earlier editions of Theories of Personality. Their evaluations and ­suggestions helped greatly in the preparation of this new edition. These reviewers include the following: ­Robert J. ­Drummond, University of North Florida; Lena K. Ericksen, Western Washington University; Charles S. Johnson, William Rainey Harper College; Alan ­Lipman, George Washington University; John Phelan, Eric Rettinger, Elizabeth Rellinger, Evert ­Community College; Linda Sayers, Richard Stockton College of New Jersey; Mark E. Sibicky, Marietta College; ­Connie Veldink, Illinois College; Dennis Wanamaker; Kevin Simpson, Concordia University; Lisa Lockhart, Texas A&M University–Kingsville; Natalie Denburg, University of Iowa Hospitals and Clinics; Kristine Anthis, Southern Connecticut State University; Eros DeSouza, Illinois State University; Yozan D. Mosig, University of Nebraska–Kearney; Angie Fournier, Virginia Wesleyan College; Atara Mcnamara, Boise State University; Randi Smith, Metro State College of Denver; and Myra Spindel, Florida International University–Miami. Carrie Hall, Miami University of Ohio; Kenneth Walters, State University of New York at Oneonta; and ­Melissa Wright, Northwest Vista College. Thanks to the Colorado College students in personality class over the years for their many insightful comments that keep these editions fresh. In addition, we are also grateful to the following reviewers whose feedback helped to shape the tenth edi- tion: Cassandra Zamoralez, Brazosport College; Rebecca Gibson, Liberty University; Stephen P. Joy, Albertus Magnus College; William Price, North Country Community College; Sarah Angulo, Texas State University; and David Rentler, University of Connecticut. We appreciate the strong support we have had from our publisher. We would like to express our spe- cial thanks to Elisa Odoardi, Product Developer, Danielle Clement, Senior Content Project Manager, Lumina Datamatics, Inc. developmental editors, Ann Loch and Adina Lonn, and Mithun Kothandath from SPi Global for his production assistance. We are also indebted to Albert Bandura for his helpful comments on the chapter dealing with social cognitive theory. We also wish to thank these other personality theorists for taking time to discuss appropriate sections of earlier editions of this book: Albert Bandura, Hans J. Eysenck (deceased), Robert McCrae, Paul T. Costa, Jr., Carl R. Rogers (deceased), Julian B. Rotter (deceased), and B. F. Skinner (deceased). Finally, GJF thanks his sons Jerry and Evan, and T-AR thanks her daughters Annika and Mia for their emotional support and other important contributions. Both GJF and T-AR want to acknowledge the founda- tional work on this book that Jess Feist provided in authoring the first 3 editions alone. This book would not exist without him. As always, we welcome and appreciate comments from readers, which help us continue to improve Theories of Personality. Gregory J. Feist Oakland, CA Tomi-Ann Roberts Colorado Springs, CO PART ONE Introduction Chapter 1  Introduction to Personality Theory 2 1 CHAPTER 1 Introduction to Personality Theory ◆ What Is Personality? ◆ What Is a Theory? Theory Defined amasterphotographer/Shutterstock Theory and Its Relatives Why Different Theories? Perspectives in Theories of Personality Theorists’ Personalities and Their Theories  of Personality What Makes a Theory Useful? ◆ Dimensions for a Concept of Humanity ◆ Research in Personality Theory ◆ Key Terms and Concepts ◆ References 2  Chapter 1 Introduction to Personality Theory 3 W hy do people behave as they do? Do people have some choice in shaping their own personality? What accounts for similarities and differences among people? What makes people act in predictable ways? Why are they unpredictable? Do hidden, unconscious forces control people’s behavior? What causes mental disturbances? Is human behavior shaped more by heredity or by environment? For centuries, philosophers, theologians, and other thinkers have asked these questions as they pondered the nature of human nature—or even wondered whether humans have a basic nature. Until relatively recent times, great thinkers made little progress in finding satisfactory answers to these questions. More than 100 years ago, however, Sigmund Freud began to combine philosophical speculations with a primi- tive scientific method. As a neurologist trained in science, Freud began to listen to his patients to find out what hidden conflicts lay behind their assortment of symptoms. “Listening became, for Freud, more than an art; it became a method, a privileged road to knowledge that his patients mapped out for him” (Gay, 1988, p. 70). Freud, in fact, was the first to develop a truly modern theory of personality, based mostly on his clinical observations. He developed a “Grand Theory,” that is, one that attempted to explain all personality for all people. As we see through- out the course of this book, many other theorists from different points of view have developed alternative grand theories. The general trend over the course of the 20th century was to base theories more and more on scientific observations rather than on clinical ones. Both sources, however, are valid foundations for theories of personality. What Is Personality? Humans are not alone in their uniqueness of and variability between individual members of the species. Individuals within every living species exhibit differences or variability. Indeed, animals such as octopi, birds, pigs, horses, cats, and dogs have consistent individual differences in behavior, otherwise known as personality, within their species (Dingemanse, Both, Drent, Van Oers, & Van Noordwijk, 2002; ­Gosling & John, 1999; Weinstein, Capitanio, & Gosling, 2008). But the degree to which individual humans vary from one another, both physically and psychologically, is quite astonishing and somewhat unique among species. Some of us are quiet and introverted, others crave social contact and stimulation; some of us are calm and even-keeled, whereas others are high-strung and persistently anxious. In this book, we explore the explanations and ideas that various men and women have had concerning how these differences in human personality come about. Psychologists differ among themselves as to the meaning of personality. Most agree that the term “personality” originated from the Latin word persona, which referred to a theatrical mask worn by Roman actors in Greek dramas. These ancient Roman actors wore a mask (persona) to project a role or false appearance. This surface view of personality, of course, is not an acceptable definition. When psy- chologists use the term “personality,” they are referring to something more than the role ­people play. 4 Part I Introduction No two people, not even identical twins, have exactly the same personalities. golf9c9333/Getty Images However, personality theorists have not agreed on a single definition of personal- ity. Indeed, they evolved unique and vital theories because they lacked agreement as to the nature of humanity, and because each saw personality from an individual reference point. The personality theorists discussed in this book have had a variety of backgrounds. Some were born in Europe and lived their entire lives there; others were born in Europe, but migrated to other parts of the world, especially the United States; still others were born in North America and remained there. Many were influenced by early religious experiences; others were not. Most, but not all, have been trained in either psychiatry or psychology. Many have drawn on their experiences as psychotherapists; others have relied more on empirical research to gather data on human personality. Although they have all dealt in some way with what we call personality, each has approached this global concept from a different perspective. Some have tried to construct a comprehensive theory; others have been less ambitious and have dealt with only a few aspects of person- ality. Few personality theorists have formally defined personality, but all have had their own view of it. Although no single definition is acceptable to all personality theorists, we can say that personality is a pattern of relatively permanent traits and unique character- istics that give both consistency and individuality to a person’s behavior (Roberts & Mroczek, 2008). Traits contribute to individual differences in behavior, consis- tency of behavior over time, and stability of behavior across situations. Traits may be unique, common to some group, or shared by the entire species, but their pattern is different for each individual. Thus each person, though like others in some ways, has a unique personality. Characteristics are unique qualities of an individual that include attributes such as temperament, physique, and intelligence.  Chapter 1 Introduction to Personality Theory 5 What Is a Theory? The word “theory” has the dubious distinction of being one of the most misused and misunderstood words in the English language. Some people contrast theory to truth or fact, but such an antithesis demonstrates a fundamental lack of understanding of all three terms. In science, theories are tools used to generate research and organize observations, but neither “truth” nor “fact” has a place in scientific terminology. Theory Defined A scientific theory is a set of related assumptions that allows scientists to use ­logical deductive reasoning to formulate testable hypotheses. This definition needs further explanation. First, a theory is a set of assumptions. A single assumption can never fulfill all the requirements of an adequate theory. A single assumption, for ­example, could not serve to integrate several observations, something a useful theory should do. Second, a theory is a set of related assumptions. Isolated assumptions can nei- ther generate meaningful hypotheses nor possess internal consistency—the two crite- ria of a useful theory. The third key word in the definition is assumptions. The components of a theory are not proven facts in the sense that their validity has been absolutely established. They are, however, accepted as if they were true. This is a practical step, taken so that scientists can conduct useful research, the results of which continue to build and reshape the original theory. Fourth, logical deductive reasoning is used by the researcher to formulate hypotheses. The tenets of a theory must be stated with sufficient precision and logi- cal consistency to permit scientists to deduce clearly stated hypotheses. The hypoth- eses are not components of the theory, but flow from it. It is the job of an imaginative scientist to begin with the general theory and, through deductive reasoning, arrive at a particular hypothesis that can be tested. If the general theoretical propositions are illogical, they remain sterile and incapable of generating hypotheses. Moreover, if a researcher uses faulty logic in deducing hypotheses, the resulting research will be meaningless and will make no contribution to the ongoing process of theory construction. The final part of the definition includes the qualifier testable. Unless a hypoth- esis can be tested in some way, it is worthless. The hypothesis need not be tested immediately, but it must suggest the possibility that scientists in the future might develop the necessary means to test it. Theory and Its Relatives People sometimes confuse theory with philosophy, or speculation, or hypothesis, or taxonomy. Although theory is related to each of these concepts, it is not the same as any of them. Philosophy First, theory is related to philosophy, but it is a much narrower term. Philosophy means love of wisdom, and philosophers are people who pursue wisdom through 6 Part I Introduction thinking and reasoning. Philosophers are not scientists; they do not ordinarily con- duct controlled studies in their pursuit of wisdom. Philosophy encompasses several branches, one of which is epistemology, or the nature of knowledge. Theory relates most closely to this branch of philosophy, because it is a tool used by scientists in their pursuit of knowledge. Theories do not deal with “oughts” and “shoulds.” Therefore, a set of prin- ciples about how one should live one’s life cannot be a theory. Such principles involve values and are the proper concern of philosophy. Although theories are not free of values, they are built on scientific evidence that has been obtained in a relatively unbi- ased fashion. Thus, there are no theories on why society should help homeless people or on what constitutes great art. Philosophy deals with what ought to be or what should be; theory does not. Theory deals with broad sets of if-then statements, but the goodness or badness of the outcomes of these statements is beyond the realm of theory. For example, a theory might tell us that if children are brought up in isolation, completely separated from human contact, then they will not develop human language, exhibit parenting behav- ior, and so on. But this statement says nothing about the morality of such a method of child rearing. Speculation Second, theories rely on speculation, but they are much more than mere armchair speculation. They do not flow forth from the mind of a great thinker isolated from empirical observations. They are closely tied to empirically gathered data and to science. What is the relationship between theory and science? Science is a branch of study concerned with the observation and classification of data and with the verifi- cation of general laws through the testing of hypotheses. Theories are useful tools employed by scientists to give meaning and organization to their observations. In addition, theories provide a fertile ground for producing testable hypotheses. Without some kind of theory to hold observations together and to point to directions of pos- sible research, science would be greatly handicapped. Theories are not useless fantasies fabricated by impractical scholars who are fearful of soiling their hands in the machinery of scientific investigation. In fact, theories themselves are quite practical and are essential for the advancement of any science. Speculation and empirical observations are the two essential corner- stones of theory building, but speculation must not run rampantly in advance of controlled observation. Hypothesis Although theory is a narrower concept than philosophy, it is a broader term than hy­pothesis. A good theory is capable of generating many hypotheses. A hypothesis is an educated guess or prediction specific enough for its validity to be tested through the use of the scientific method. A theory is too general to lend itself to direct ­verification, but a single comprehensive theory is capable of generating thousands of hypotheses. Hypotheses, then, are more specific than the theories that give birth to them. The offspring, however, should not be confused with the parent.  Chapter 1 Introduction to Personality Theory 7 Of course, a close relationship exists between a theory and a hypothesis. Using deductive reasoning (going from the general to the specific), a scientific investigator can derive testable hypotheses from a useful theory and then test these hypotheses. The results of these tests—whether they support or contradict the hypotheses—feed back into the theory. Using inductive reasoning (going from the specific to the gen- eral), the investigator then alters the theory to reflect these results. As the theory grows and changes, other hypotheses can be drawn from it, and when tested they in turn reshape the theory. Taxonomy A taxonomy is a classification of things according to their natural relationships. Tax- onomies are essential for the development of science because without classification of data science could not grow. Mere classification, however, does not constitute a theory. However, taxonomies can evolve into theories when they begin to generate testable hypotheses and explain research findings. For example, Robert McCrae and Paul Costa began their research by classifying people into five stable personality traits. Eventually, this research on the Big Five taxonomy led to more than a mere classifica- tion; it became a theory, capable of suggesting hypotheses and offering explanations for research results. Why Different Theories? If theories of personality are truly scientific, why do we have so many different ones? Alternate theories exist because the very nature of a theory allows the theorist to make speculations from a particular point of view. Theorists must be as objective as possible when gathering data, but their decisions as to what data are collected and how these data are interpreted are personal ones. Theories are not immutable laws; they are built, not on proven facts, but on assumptions that are subject to individual interpretation. All theories are a reflection of their authors’ personal backgrounds, childhood experiences, philosophy of life, interpersonal relationships, and unique manner of looking at the world. Because observations are colored by an individual observer’s frame of reference, it follows that there may be many diverse theories. Nevertheless, divergent theories can be useful. The usefulness of a theory does not depend on its commonsense value or on its agreement with other theories; rather, it depends on its ability to generate research and to explain research data and other observations. Perspectives in Theories of Personality One of the primary functions of scientific theory is to describe and explain how the world works. Psychologists attempt to explain how human thoughts, emotions, motives, and behaviors work. Yet human personality is so complex that many dif- ferent perspectives have developed on how to best explain them. These perspectives make different assumptions and focus on different aspects of behavior. In psychol- ogy, there are at least five major theoretical perspectives on what personality is and how it develops. We have organized the book around these five perspectives, one for each section of the book (see Table 1.1). 8 Part I Introduction Psychodynamic Theories Beginning with Freud, psychoanalytic and then the more general psychodynamic approaches have focused on the importance of early childhood experiences and on relationships with parents as guiding forces that shape personality development. Addi- tionally, this view sees the unconscious mind and motives as much more powerful than the conscious awareness. Psychoanalysis traditionally used dream interpretation to uncover the unconscious thoughts, feelings, and impulses as a main form of treat- ment for neurosis and mental illness. After Freud, these theorists moved away from the importance of sexuality and more toward social and cultural forces. Humanistic-Existential Theories The primary assumption of the humanistic (currently known as “positive psychol- ogy”) approach is that people strive toward meaning, growth, well-being, happiness, and psychological health. States of positive emotion and happiness foster psychologi- cal health and prosocial behavior. Understanding these evolved positive aspects of human behavior provides just as much insight into human nature as does understand- ing the pathological aspects. Existential theorists assume that not only we are driven by a search for meaning but also negative experiences, such as failure, awareness of death, death of a loved one, and anxiety, are part of the human condition and can foster psychological growth. Dispositional Theories Dispositional theorists argue that the unique and long-term tendencies to behave in particular ways are the essence of our personality. These unique dispositions, such as extraversion or anxiety, are called traits. The field has converged on the understand- ing that there are five main trait dimensions in human personality. Traits serve the function of making certain behaviors more likely in some people. Biological-Evolutionary Theories Behavior, thoughts, feelings, and personality are influenced by differences in basic genetic, epigenetic, and neurological systems among individuals. The reason some people have different traits, dispositions, and ways of thinking stems from differences in their genotype and central nervous system (brain structures and neurochemistry). Because they are based on evolved brain systems, human thought, behavior, and personality have been shaped by forces of evolution (natural and sexual selection) over millions of years. The body, brain, and environment coexist and coevolve, and so more than any other psychological perspective, this one emphasizes that what we think, feel, and do is always an interaction between nature (biological) and nurture (environment). Learning-(Social) Cognitive Theories If you want to understand behavior, then focus only on behavior, not on ­hypothetical and unobservable internal states such as thoughts, feelings, drives, or motives. All behaviors are learned through association and/or its consequences (whether it  Chapter 1 Introduction to Personality Theory 9 is reinforced or punished). To shape desired behaviors, we have to understand and then establish the conditions that bring about those particular behaviors. The cognitive perspective argues that how we think about ourselves and other people, as well as the assumptions we make and the strategies we use for solving prob- lems, are the keys to understanding differences among people. Whether we believe we can do something successfully or not influences our behavior as well as our personal- ity. In short, what personality we have is shaped by how we think and perceive the world. TABLE 1.1 Overview of Five Major Theoretical Perspectives in Personality Psychology Perspective Primary Assumptions Focus/Key Terms Key Figures Psychodynamic F irst 5 years of life most Unconscious Freud shape personality Early recollections Adler Unconscious forces are most Collective unconscious Jung important Archetypes Klein Neurosis results from Object relations Horney unhealthy moving toward, Identity crises Erikson against, or away from others Relatedness Fromm Humanistic- P eople strive to live Meaningful life, Maslow Existential meaningful, happy lives psychological well-being Rogers People are motivated by growth and growth and psychological health Personality is shaped by May freedom of choice, response to anxiety, and awareness of death Dispositional P eople are predisposed Traits Allport to behave in unique and Motives consistent ways; they have unique traits There are five trait dimensions McCrae & Costa in human personality Biological- T he foundation for thought Brain structures, Eysenck Evolutionary and behavior is biological and neurochemicals, and genetic forces genes Human thoughts and Adaptive mechanisms Buss behaviors have been shaped by evolutionary forces (natural and sexual selection) (Continued) 10 Part I Introduction TABLE 1.1 Continued Perspective Primary Assumptions Focus/Key Terms Key Figures Learning- O nly explanation for behavior Conditioned responses Skinner (Social) Cognitive is the conditions that create Shaping behavior Reinforcement Learning occurs through Observational learning association and consequences of our behavior Learning also occurs through Modeling Bandura succeeding or failing and Self-efficacy watching other people succeed or fail in their tasks Personality develops as Cognitive-affective units Rotter an interaction between Mischel the internal and external characteristics of a person The cognitive constructs Constructs Kelly we develop to perceive the world and others mold our personalities Theorists’ Personalities and Their Theories of Personality Because personality theories grow from theorists’ own personalities, a study of those personalities is appropriate. In recent years a subdiscipline of psychology called ­psychology of science has begun to look at personal traits of scientists. The psychology of science studies both science and behavior of scientists; that is, it investigates the impact of an individual scientist’s psychological processes and personal ­characteristics on the development of his or her scientific theories and research (Feist, 1993, 1994, 2006; Feist & Gorman, 1998; Gholson, Shadish, Neimeyer, & Houts, 1989). In other words, the psychology of science examines how scientists’ personalities, cognitive processes, developmental histories, and social experience affect the kind of science they conduct and the theories they create. Indeed, a number of investigators (Hart, 1982; Johnson, Germer, Efran, & Overton, 1988; Simonton, 2000; Zachar & Leong, 1992) have demonstrated that personality differences influence one’s theoretical ori- entation as well as one’s inclination to lean toward the “hard” or “soft” side of a discipline. An understanding of theories of personality rests on information regarding the historical, social, and psychological worlds of each theorist at the time of his or her theorizing. Because we believe that personality theories reflect the theorist’s personal- ity, we have included a substantial amount of biographical information on each major theorist. Indeed, personality differences among theorists account for fundamental disagreements between those who lean toward the quantitative side of psychology  Chapter 1 Introduction to Personality Theory 11 (behaviorists, social learning theorists, and trait theorists) and those inclined toward the clinical and qualitative side of psychology (psychoanalysts, humanists, and existentialists). Although a theorist’s personality partially shapes his or her theory, it should not be the sole determinant of that theory. Likewise, your acceptance of one or another theory should not rest only on your personal values and predilections. When evalu- ating and choosing a theory, you should acknowledge the impact of the theorist’s personal history on the theory, but you should ultimately evaluate it on the basis of scientific criteria that are independent of that personal history. Some observers (Feist, 2006; Feist & Gorman, 1998) have distinguished between science as process and science as product. The scientific process may be influenced by the personal char- acteristics of the scientist, but the ultimate usefulness of the scientific product is and must be evaluated independently of the process. Thus, your evaluation of each of the theories presented in this book should rest more on objective criteria than on your subjective likes and dislikes. What Makes a Theory Useful? A useful theory has a mutual and dynamic interaction with research data. First, a the- ory generates a number of hypotheses that can be investigated through research, thus yielding research data. These data flow back into the theory and restructure it. From this newly contoured theory, scientists can extract other hypotheses, leading to more research and additional data, which in turn reshape and enlarge the theory even more. This cyclic relationship continues for as long as the theory proves useful. Second, a useful theory organizes research data into a meaningful structure and provides an explanation for the results of scientific research. This relationship between theory and research data is shown in Figure 1.1. When a theory is no longer Hypothesis Theory Research m The ea o ni ry ng gi ory to ves da the ta pe ha s re ata Research D data FIGURE 1.1 The Interaction among Theory, Hypotheses, Research, and Research Data. 12 Part I Introduction able to generate additional research or to explain research-related data, it loses its usefulness and is set aside in favor of a more useful one. In addition to sparking research and explaining research data, a useful theory must lend itself to confirmation or disconfirmation, provide the practitioner with a guide to action, be consistent with itself, and be as simple as possible. Therefore, we have evaluated each of the theories presented in this book on the basis of six criteria: A useful theory (1) generates research, (2) is falsifiable, (3) organizes data, (4) guides action, (5) is internally consistent, and (6) is parsimonious. Generates Research The most important criterion of a useful theory is its ability to stimulate and guide further research. Without an adequate theory to point the way, many of science’s present empirical findings would have remained undiscovered. In astronomy, for example, the planet Neptune was discovered because the theory of motion generated the hypothesis that the irregularity in the path of Uranus must be caused by the pres- ence of another planet. Useful theory provided astronomers with a road map that guided their search for and discovery of the new planet. A useful theory will generate two different kinds of research: descriptive research and hypothesis testing. Descriptive research, which can expand an existing theory, is concerned with the measurement, labeling, and categorization of the units employed in theory building. Descriptive research has a symbiotic relationship with theory. On one hand, it provides the building blocks for the theory, and on the other, it receives its impetus from the dynamic, expanding theory. The more useful the the- ory, the more research generated by it; the greater the amount of descriptive research, the more complete the theory. The second kind of research generated by a useful theory, hypothesis testing, leads to an indirect verification of the usefulness of the theory. As we have noted, a useful theory will generate many hypotheses that, when tested, add to a database that may reshape and enlarge the theory. (Refer again to Figure 1.1.) Is Falsifiable A theory must also be evaluated on its ability to be confirmed or disconfirmed; that is, it must be falsifiable. To be falsifiable, a theory must be precise enough to suggest research that may either support or fail to support its major tenets. If a theory is so vague and nebulous that both positive and negative research results can be interpreted as support, then that theory is not falsifiable and ceases to be useful. Falsifiability, however, is not the same as false; it simply means that negative research results will refute the theory and force the theorist to either discard it or modify it. A falsifiable theory is accountable to experimental results. Figure 1.1 depicts a circular and mutually reinforcing connection between theory and research; each forms a basis for the other. Science is distinguished from nonscience by its ability to reject ideas that are not supported empirically even though they seem logical and rational. For example, Aristotle used logic to argue that lighter bodies fall at slower rates than heavier bodies. Although his argument may have agreed with “common sense,” it had one problem: It was empirically wrong.  Chapter 1 Introduction to Personality Theory 13 Theories that rely heavily on unobservable transformations in the unconscious are exceedingly difficult to either verify or falsify. For example, Freud’s theory sug- gests that many of our emotions and behaviors are motivated by unconscious tenden- cies that are directly opposite the ones we express. For instance, unconscious hate might be expressed as conscious love, or unconscious fear of one’s own homosexual feelings might take the form of exaggerated hostility toward homosexual individuals. Because Freud’s theory allows for such transformations within the unconscious, it is nearly impossible to either verify or falsify. A theory that can explain everything explains nothing. Organizes Data A useful theory should also be able to organize those research data that are not incompatible with each other. Without some organization or classification, research findings would remain isolated and meaningless. Unless data are organized into some intelligible framework, scientists are left with no clear direction to follow in the pur- suit of further knowledge. They cannot ask intelligent questions without a theoreti- cal framework that organizes their information. Without intelligent questions, further research is severely curtailed. A useful theory of personality must be capable of integrating what is currently known about human behavior and personality development. It must be able to shape as many bits of information as possible into a meaningful arrangement. If a personal- ity theory does not offer a reasonable explanation of at least some kinds of behaviors, it ceases to be useful. Guides Action The fourth criterion of a useful theory is its ability to guide the practitioner over the rough course of day-to-day problems. For example, parents, teachers, business manag- ers, and psychotherapists are confronted continually with an avalanche of questions for which they try to find workable answers. Good theory provides a structure for finding many of those answers. Without a useful theory, practitioners would stumble in the darkness of trial and error techniques; with a sound theoretical orientation, they can discern a suitable course of action. For the Freudian psychoanalyst and the Rogerian counselor, answers to the same question would be very different. To the question “How can I best treat this patient?,” the psychoanalytic therapist might answer along these lines: If psychoneu- roses are caused by childhood sexual conflicts that have become unconscious, then I can help this patient best by delving into these repressions and allowing the patient to relive the experiences in the absence of conflict. To the same question, the Rogerian therapist might answer: If, in order to grow psychologically, people need empathy, unconditional positive regard, and a relationship with a congruent therapist, then I can best help this client by providing an accepting, nonthreatening atmosphere. Notice that both therapists constructed their answers in an if-then framework, even though the two answers call for very different courses of action. Also included in this criterion is the extent to which the theory stimulates thought and action in other disciplines, such as art, literature (including movies and television dramas), law, sociology, philosophy, religion, education, business 14 Part I Introduction administration, and psychotherapy. Most of the theories discussed in this book have had some influence in areas beyond psychology. For example, Freud’s theory has prompted research on recovered memories, a topic very important to the legal pro- fession. Also, Carl Jung’s theory is of great interest to many theologians and has captured the imagination of popular writers such as Joseph Campbell and others. Similarly, the ideas of Alfred Adler, Erik Erikson, B. F. Skinner, Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers, Rollo May, and other personality theorists have sparked interest and action in a broad range of scholarly fields. Is Internally Consistent A useful theory need not be consistent with other theories, but it must be consistent with itself. An internally consistent theory is one whose components are logically compatible. Its limitations of scope are carefully defined and it does not offer explana- tions that lie beyond that scope. Also, an internally consistent theory uses language in a consistent manner; that is, it does not use the same term to mean two different things, nor does it use two separate terms to refer to the same concept. A good theory will use concepts and terms that have been clearly and opera- tionally defined. An operational definition is one that defines units in terms of observ- able events or behaviors that can be measured. For example, an extravert can be operationally defined as any person who attains a predetermined score on a particular personality inventory. Is Parsimonious When two theories are equal in their ability to generate research, be falsified, give meaning to data, guide the practitioner, and be self-consistent, the simpler one is preferred. This is the law of parsimony. In fact, two theories are never exactly equal in these other abilities, but in general, simple, straightforward theories are more use- ful than ones that bog down under the weight of complicated concepts and esoteric language. Dimensions for a Concept of Humanity Personality theories differ on basic issues concerning the nature of humanity. Each personality theory reflects its author’s assumptions about humanity. These assumptions rest on several broad dimensions that separate the vari- ous personality theorists. We use six of these dimensions as a framework for viewing each theorist’s concept of humanity. The first dimension is determinism versus free choice. Are people’s behaviors determined by forces over which they have no control, or can people choose to be what they wish to be? Can behavior be part