Psychological Problems PDF

psych prob Psychological problems Key terms and definitions: Stereotype - a negative label on a person different from yourself Prejudice - preconceived opinion that is not based on reason or actual experience Stigma - when someone negatively thinks of someone and makes unfair assumptions because o...

psych prob Psychological problems Key terms and definitions: Stereotype - a negative label on a person different from yourself Prejudice - preconceived opinion that is not based on reason or actual experience Stigma - when someone negatively thinks of someone and makes unfair assumptions because of a particular characteristic or attribute (thinking ill thoughts of another person) Discrimination - the unjust or prejudicial treatment of different categories of people (acting on ill thoughts of another person) Care in the community - refers to when the community looks after a person Mental health Mental health is a very subjective and personal experience, it is hard to find a definition that suits everyone. Different ways of defining mental health The mental health continuum This is based on the idea that there are degrees of mental health. While reacting, people are taking care of themselves and using social support networks to cope If injured or ill, will need professional care Jahoda (1958) - good mental health (low historical validity) ​ Having high self-esteem ​ Personal growth and self-actualisation ​ Autonomy ​ Integrity ​ Accurate perception of reality It is hard to achieve all of the points above Current prevalence of mental health problems (Memorise) Prevalence measures the number of people with a mental health problem at any one point in time Prevalence of mental health problems today: ​ 1 in 4 British adults report having being diagnosed with a mental health problem ​ Every year, 1 in 10 British children (5-16) are clinically diagnosed (diagnosed by doctor) with a mental health disorder ​ The WHO estimated that 450 million people worldwide suffer from some form of mental health problem (universal) ​ The number of mental health problems tend to decline with age ​ Women tend to be diagnosed with more mental health problems than men ​ People who identify as LGBTQ are more at risk of experiencing mental health problems Incidence of mental health problems over time (Memorise) Incidence measures the number of new cases of mental health problems occurring in a given period - e.g. a year Hard to track over time as: ​ Not all mental health problems are clinically diagnosed and recorded, number of undiagnosed people may be high ​ The symptoms used to diagnose mental health change over time following new research and discoveries, and the definition of mental health is socially constructed. What is seen as a mental health problem in Britain may be seen differently in other places (cultural differences). E.g. voices in head may mean chosen by prophet in Caribbean tribes but schizophrenic in UK ​ Many trends rely on self-report surveys (increases validity), people may lie, be dishonest or have faulty memory. (social desirability bias) According to the NHS in 2016, the proportion of the English population aged 16-64 who met the criteria for a common mental disorder increased from 15.5% in 1993 to 17.6% in 2007 Changing classification Changes in attitudes towards mental health are shown in the way that psychiatrists have changed how psychological disorders are diagnosed. ICD - International Classification of Diseases (European) developed by WHO, in 11th edition. DSM - Diagnostic Statistical Manual (USA, Canada) in 5th edition These classification methods help standardise mental health. Similarities and differences Disorders have been added and taken away. (social construction) Not everything changes when it comes to mental health problems - 7th edition of ICD lists many disorders which are still recognised today. Changes in attitudes towards mental health problems How attitudes towards mental health in the UK have changed since Mental Health Act 1959 (likely 6 marker) Mental “health” is used instead of “illness” to reduce the stigma surrounding mental illness to show that it is not abnormal. The term “illness” reinforced prejudice as illnesses are contagious. Words like “insanity”, “madness”, and “lunacy” are not used as they suggest people with psychological health problems are out of control The Mental Health Act (1959) helped change attitudes towards mental health. It was the first time the term “mental disorder" was used. Aims: -​ Ensure that people with psychiatric illnesses were treated in similar ways to people with physical illnesses, e.g. consenting to treatment when possible  -​ To make local councils responsible for the social care of people with mental health problems, who did not need in-patient medical treatment. This was the start of care in the community. Can include: In the 1960s the media began to break the ‘taboo of silence’ that surrounded mental health problems, running programmes and writing articles on various conditions In the 1970s the charity Mind campaigned for the rights of people with mental health problems arguing that they were treated against their will. The MPU (mental patients union) was set up in England to represent the views of people who were “mentally distressed” In the 1980s there was a rise in care in the community for those with mental health problems, but it was not well funded leading to people committing violent acts. This caused moral panic - an extreme fear of people with mental health. In the 1990s organisations were set up to promote a more positive image of people with mental health problems., such as “world mental health day” in 1992. In 2011 the “Time to Change” programme was launched to improve attitudes towards mental health problems - this includes a 6% rise in willingness to continue a relationship with a friend with a mental health problem - shows there have been small improvements in reducing stigma and decreases the lack of awareness and improves acceptance Describe how attitudes towards mental health have changed in the UK since the 1959 Mental Health Act -6 marker model answer: (from OCR mark scheme 2021 nov.) The Mental Health Act of 1959 made a significant difference in the way that people with mental health issues were perceived and treated. The term mental health disorder replaced more negative terms that had been used before and allowed patients to be aligned with those who had physical ailments, resulting in more rights e.g. consenting to treatment. In the 1960’s, some psychologists even questioned the concept of mental health suggesting it was an unhelpful label which led to more open debate. This has continued which means what counts and does not count as a mental health disorder changes over time as attitudes change e.g. homosexuality was seen as a disorder once but not now. Society is now much more open in terms of recognising mental health issues and the growth in charities and awareness days can be seen as part of this. The effect of significant mental health problems on the individual and society Significant mental health disorders are long lasting and sometimes permanent. They raise issues in society in terms of how they are dealt with when such they arise. Effects of stigma on the individual before and after diagnosis Although stigma for mental health problems have been significantly reduced, stigmatisation can still happen today. As stigma is how we perceive things, there is a strong cognitive element to it. This means it is difficult to investigate. However, psychologists can measure attitudes using self report methods Before diagnosis An individual with a developing mental health problem may be perceived in negative ways, and be given a label of ‘crazy’ (stigmatised). This is because they display behaviours which are bizarre, and do not conform to what society expects. After diagnosis Particular disorders are associated with their own negative stereotypes - e.g. schizophrenics are ‘suicidal’ - individuals who are labelled this way are stigmatised and are at risk of becoming a ‘self fulfilling prophecy’ Effects of discrimination on individuals before and after diagnosis - action = discrimination (acting on prejudice) The stigma attached to people with mental health problems becomes more of an issue when people act on their thoughts. It changes from a cognitive issue to a behavioural issue - leading to discrimination Before diagnosis When an individual is perceived to be different, this can lead to others discriminating against them, as their behaviour causes concern - they may become withdrawn from society After diagnosis After the diagnosis, people may discriminate more against them as they are concerned about their disorder - may not be given the same rights (to make their own choices), may avoid them as they think they are dangerous, may not be given the same opportunities. Also may have positive discrimination - preferential treatment (not treated the same) in the workplace - e.g. person with mental health is not rejected from job as it is thought that they may not be able to cope. Effects of significant mental health problems on the wider society When individuals experience mental health problems, it also affects others around them Effects on public services If the prevalence of mental health problems is on the increase, it means more time and resources spent to support and treat the individuals. It puts more demand on health and social care services, as treatments and keeping people in wards is expensive. Mental health has not always been very well funded, so if more people require treatment it means the quality of the care may go down. This can be dealt with by care in the community Care in the community a system in which people with mental illness or reduced mental ability are allowed to continue living in their own homes, with treatment and help, and are not kept in hospital Care in the community was originally seen as a temporary solution, but over time it became a more permanent approach as it was thought to provide a better quality of life and more dignity to those in need of mental health care, better than psychiatric institutions (loony bins). This is only if the patients get better when they are hospitalised, and still have to take medication at home Critics argue that it is simply a way to save money and it puts pressure on families and communities who do not have the time or expertise to care for people with mental health. This is why some sufferers go in and out of hospital or end up on the streets. Supporters argue that people are more likely to get better in their natural surroundings as they are not isolated in a controlled setting Effects on the law The Equality Act of 2010 protects disabled people including those with mental illnesses from unfair treatment. E.g. employers have to make adjustments to enable them to do their jobs and protect against discrimination in areas like housing and education. Effects on society’s attitude A greater use of care in the community means people are more likely to interact with individuals with psych probs, helping break down prejudices. Charities campaigning helps raise awareness of mental health problems. (applications of social influence topic addresses how society’s attitudes can be changed to avoid stigma and discrimination) Schizophrenia Schizophrenia is one of the most significant health disorders, it is very severe and can last a lifetime. Individuals suffering lose touch with reality. The clinical characteristics of schizophrenia The ICD (International Classification of Diseases) is a manual used by psychiatrists and other professionals to help diagnose both mental and physical disorders. The following factors are needed to diagnose schizophrenia: memorise At least one of these symptoms OR at least two of these symptoms Thought disturbances Persistent hallucinations Delusions of control (difference between Disorganised speech delusion and hallucination - belief and hearing/observing) Hallucinations involving all 5 senses Catatonic behaviour (posturing, waxy flexibility - staying in an immobile posture) Persistent delusions Negative symptoms (loss of normal function - e.g. anhedonia - inability to experience pleasure (sex), blunted effect - reduction in the range and intensity of emotional expressions  Social withdrawal - tendency to avoid social interactions - more ‘shut in’ Symptoms should be present for most of the time during an episode of psychotic illness lasting at least a month Key stats of schizophrenia Schizophrenia is: ​ Prevalent in 1% of UK population ​ Only diagnosed in adults, in men normally in 20s, in women normally 30s ​ Diagnosed equally for both males and females ​ Diagnosed more in people of Caribbean and African origin compare to white ​ Recovery rates - 10 years after being diagnosed 25% fully recover, 25% much improved, 25% need support, 15% hospitalised and 10% have died (mainly through suicide) Psychological explanation of schizophrenia - social drift theory The social drift theory of schizophrenia tries to explain the relationship between social class and scz. Scz. is one of the disorders most strongly linked to class, with working-class people being 5x more likely to be diagnosed with scz. than higher social groups. Many people who develop scz. tend to move down social classes. Social drift theory suggests that this is because people with scz begin to disengage with society when they are diagnosed. This means that they opt out of society as ‘normal’ things that are important to most people like a job, home, and family become less important to them as they are experiencing terrible symptoms. Another reason for social drift is that individuals are rejected from society. This is because scz is a label, so it is linked to stigma and discrimination. They may find it hard to remain a normal part of society because of their diagnosis, as they may lose their job. Society may reject them as their behaviours are abnormal, so they disengage from society This leads to a downward spiral into poverty and loss of status, they stop following social norms, leading to further disengagement and rejection, so they move to a lower place in society, making it harder to ‘get better’ Criticisms of social drift theory There are problems with establishing cause and effect in social drift theory Even though social class and scz seem to be linked, rather than social drift driving people into lower classes it may be being in lower social classes drives people to develop scz, as there are more stressors that may trigger scz. (social causation theory) There may be a bias in diagnosis It may be that psychiatrists and other professionals are more likely to diagnose people of a lower social class with scz than affluent people, this is maybe because of a bias in diagnosis in middle-class psychiatrists There is too much focus on the role of society Critics argue that the theory focuses too much on the role of society and ignores the role of the family as a cause of scz. There is evidence that family conflict contributes to this disorder The theory focuses too much on the interactions between the sufferer and society It ignores biological factors that are involved in scz. Even if society plays a role, there is evidence that the cause of scz is a genetic factor as it affects how the brain works The biological theory of schizophrenia - know all key regions of the brain Mental health disorders are any behaviour which is statistically abnormal, differs from the norm The biological theory (more scientific but reductionist) aims to explain schizophrenia by looking at the biological factors. There is a genetic basis to schizophrenia (in family trees) and the diathesis-stress model suggests that schizophrenia develops in individuals with a genetic vulnerability (diathesis) when triggered by environmental stressors (stress), such as trauma or substance abuse. In the brains of people with scz., there is too much of the neurotransmitter dopamine. Dopamine is linked to behaviours like movement, mood, perception and attention. Too much dopamine causes movements to become erratic and people to experience delusions and hallucinations. People with scz. Have dopaminergic neurons which transmit dopamine too easily, and have unusually high numbers of D2 dopamine receptors resulting in dopamine binding and more neurons firing across synapses. People with scz have lower blood flow to the frontal cortex region of the brain, which is less frequently activated when tasks are carried out. Brain scans also show the brain structure of people with scz. differ from those without - frontal cortex is smaller in volume. The prefrontal cortex which acts as a ‘control centre’ is defective, so people with scz. lose control over their psychological functioning. The temporal lobes are also lower in volume as people with scz. lack grey matter. Hippocampus is also lower in volume, the more serious the disorder the smaller it is. Criticisms of the biological theory It only focuses on nature This means the theory ignores the effect of nature on the development of schizophrenia. Even if the brains of people with scz. look and function different, it does not cause the disorder. The brain still needs to interact with the environment for schizophrenia to develop Critics argue the biological theory is too reductionist It is too simplistic to try to explain a complex disorder by just looking at a part of the brain or a neurochemical. A number of different psychological factors may cause scz. Scz. is too broad of a label As it describes a variety of symptoms, it may not be realistic identify a singular definitive cause for the disorder Daniel et al - the effect of amphetamine on regional cerebral blood flow during cognitive activation in scz. Background Several studies (lots of supporting evidence) have shown low levels of activity in the prefrontal cortex of people with scz. This has been linked to the activity of dopamine in the brain, and suppressed D2 dopamine receptors help people focus on a specific stimuli in the environment Hypothesis The researchers hypothesised if prefrontal cortex dysfunction was related to problems in the dopamine synaptic transmission, then amphetamine (chemical that increases alertness and energy) would increase activity in the prefrontal cortex during cognitive tasks. A SPECT scan was used to scan the participant’s brain activity during the task. (objective, reliable, test retest) - nuclear imaging test - shows blood flow to tissues and organs Method IV was whether participants have been given amphetamine or not. DV was performance on Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (prefrontal activation task) BAR task (sensorimotor task, controlled) Sample The participants were ten chronic scz. in-patients (institutionalised, vulnerable, already on medication, effect on research) from the National Institute of Mental research wards in Washington USA (culture bias, cant generalise) Study had approval of institutional review board and radiation safety committee (gained necessary approval) 20% black, 80% white (not representative as more caribbean people are diagnosed) 40% women 60% men All participants symptoms were clinically stabilised through the use of haloperidol, free of illness and alcohol/drug abuse Procedure A repeated measures design was used - participants were tested with and without amphetamine on 2 different days. Half tested with, half tested without. When tested without was given placebo (fake) so they did not know whether amphetamine had been given or not Results There were significant differences between the two conditions on brain activity when participants did WCST but not in BAR task. Left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, occipital and anterior cingulate cortices were all affected Amphetamine has minimal effect on regional cerebral bloodflow in both tasks, and significantly increased performance measures during WCST task Behaviour changes from WCST were highly variable and three patients showed clinically significant improvement whereas one patient significantly deteriorated (individual differences) Conclusion Amphetamine significantly increased prefrontal cortex activity during the performance of a cognitive task despite it reducing blood flow in the brain. This implies that problems associated with schizophrenia and prefrontal cortex dysfunction are reversible through drug treatment The study showed a link between brain function and key symptoms of schizophrenia in support of biological theory Criticisms The sample size is too small to draw reliable conclusions It is difficult to generalise the results to other people with scz as the sample was not representative as all participants were volunteers The sample was potentially culturally biased This is because the sample was drawn from a small area of USA and consisted mainly of white people, so it is not generalisable as more caribbean people are diagnosed The study may lack temporal validity The results may become outdated over time as the study used a different system for diagnosing scz than one used today Brain scans may have long term consequences as it uses radiation This is unethical as participants were scanned and only given a placebo afterwards Difference in brain activity may have been affected by haloperidol It becomes an extraneous variable making it hard to establish cause and effect Depression Clinical depression occurs due to low levels of serotonin in the brain -​ It is different from the depression caused from a loved one/thyroid disorder (Both an increase or decrease in the thyroid hormones can result in mood disorders like depression and anxiety) as there is often no clear external trigger. -​ Depression can affect people from the age of 4 years old Clinical characteristics of depression The ICD lists 3 grades of depression -​ Mild -​ Moderate -​ Severe DO NOT LEARN BUT NEED TO BASE EXAMPLES ON THESE ‘loss of interest and enjoyment, and reduced energy leading to increased fatigability’ Examples of depression - divorce, illness, redundancy and job or money worries Symptoms of depression - weight loss, marked tiredness, reduction in energy, loss of interest and pleasurable feelings, reduced self esteem and self confidence, diminished appetite, reduction in capacity for concentration, changes in sleeping patterns Key statistics of clinical depression ​ Women are more likely to have depression than men - 33% women, 19% men. ​ 4-10% of people in England will experience depression. ​ Asians are more likely to experience it than black people ​ People from disadvantaged backgrounds are more likely to experience depression other mental health issues than those from more advantaged backgrounds ​ Approx. 80000 people suffer from depression in the UK A person with depression is likely to be put in Primary Care Trust ABC model of clinical depression (cognitive theory) Rational and irrational beliefs Ellis(1962) stated that depression is caused by irrational thinking - how we perceive events can be the difference between us being happy or depressed Believes depression is a result of disturbance in thinking - these are core irrational beliefs (e.g. need to succeed to be worthwhile), individuals are not aware that they exist It is not the event that causes the individual to experience negative thoughts and emotions, but whether they interpret it in an irrational way. It can become a habit (a rut) which is hard to get out of Rational thinking results in good mental health - basis of REBT - rational emotive behaviour therapy - developed to help clients identify and challenge negative/irrational beliefs ABC model This theory explains depression by focusing on the role of activating events, beliefs and consequences. If an event happens and it is irrationally interpreted, it can have negative consequences which lead to depression Roles of activating events, beliefs and consequences Activating event (A) An activating event triggers the individual to potentially have an irrational thought. E.g. u get left on read Beliefs (B) The belief is how the event is interpreted by the individual. If it is interpreted irrationally you may assume (they dont wanna be friends anymore) If it is interpreted rationally you may assume they were busy Consequences (C) The consequences of the beliefs are how you feel about the situation If the event has been interpreted in an irrational way you may feel: -​ Upset or worried that they no longer want to be your friend -​ That you will be lonely -​ The friend may tell people you have done something wrong -​ Other people wont like you All of reasons above therefore you should avoid them All of these feelings could result in depression If interpreted rationally, nothing to worry about Criticisms of the ABC model The model assumes that the individual becomes depressed due to an irrational evaluation of the situation However, there may be a rational reason to be depressed such as loss of job/income, causing unemployment and a more difficult life The model is too reductionist It only focuses on faulty cognitive processes and assumes that depression is simply the results of irrationally evaluating a situation, and doesn't take into account biological factors such as neurotransmitters and how they influence us Depression that comes from nowhere may be better explained by innate biological factors It is hard to establish cause and effect using this model The ABC model suggests that the individual makes irrational/faulty decisions, but does not elaborate whether these cause or are caused by depression - this reduces reliability By supporting the idea of free will, Ellis’ model assumes that the individual is responsible for their illness This may make individuals feel worse as they blame themselves. However, biological explanations suggest that depression may be linked to brain differences, meaning individuals may have little control over it Free will - people are able to make choices about how they think and act Determinism - human behaviour is determined by factors outside our control Need to know this in context of depression, but may also need to apply iot to another topic Social rank theory of clinical depression The theory believes that depression may have had an evolutionary function, meaning it has evolved to have a specific purpose Depression is a natural reaction to loss, this allows us to come to terms with it and stop trying to aspire for a higher status than what we currently have and stop competing. This means that if you lost your gf to another guy, you accept that you are in a lower position of society, preventing the other person from inflicting further injury on the loser, so he will not try to gain a higher rank in society. This reduces conflict in society, meaning the loser maintains a place in society, which is better for survival than being exiled +​ Positive - depression exists so is part of evolutionary function for survival Criticisms of the theory The social rank theory of depression can be considered reductionist as it only views depression as a process of evolution This ignores other biological explanations for depression, such as the imbalance of neurotransmitters like dopamine and serotonin in the brain The theory ignores instances of depression which can be triggered in life events Depression caused by the loss of a loved one, which is logical, is not explained by this theory The theory suggests depression is linked to losers and low social rank However many people of high social rank like actors still experience depression Core study - Tandoc et al - facebook use, envy and depression among college students Background Going from school to university is a difficult time. Many factors can lead to depression during this time -​ Learning from home for the first time -​ Making new friends -​ Learning to be more independent -​ Increased pressures on studying Tandoc et al suggested that there are many factors which may have contributed to the significant increase in the incidents of depression among young people in recent times -​ Better diagnostics - better access to doctors -​ More attention is now paid to uni students’ wellbeing -​ Heavier use of social media like facebook Social rank theory suggests that when humans compete for the same resources, those who are unsuccessful can feel subordinate. Tandoc suggests that these feeling of subordination are similar to feelings of envy and can make people more vulnerable to depression Aim To see whether depression (using SRT) is linked to facebook usage, and whether using Facebook led to feelings of envy (which lead on to depression) Hypotheses -​ The facebook users will report a higher level of envy -​ The higher the network of friends, the greater the feelings of envy -​ Higher levels of envy would be associated with more symptoms of depression Method Conducted using an online questionnaire, responses were coded into quantitative data 763 students from a self selected sample, 68% were female, from an American midwestern university. Average age of 19 Materials The questionnaire asked participants about different variables 1.​ Facebook usage (hours per day) ​ ​ - rate using a 5 point likert scale on different usage and ‘surveillance’ 2.​ Envy -​ 5 point likert scale to rate 8 different items related to envy 3.​ Depression ​ - completed the CES-D asking participants to respond on symptoms associated with depression This was completed and submitted by participants Results ​ Hypothesis 1 was supported, showing that heavy facebook users reported stronger feelings of envy ​ Hypothesis 2 was not supported, the size of friend network on facebook was not related to envy ​ Hypothesis 3 was supported, facebook envy was a significant positive predictor of depression among college students ​ There was no relationship between how frequently facebook was used and how depressed people felt, nor was there between depression and surveillance Conclusion Facebook usage does directly link to depression, but is indirectly linked to causing envy (shows that envy links to depression, not facebook usage) Facebook surveillance can lesson feelings of depression if it does not lead to envy Social rank theory offers a useful basis on which to understand how depression can occur in college aged students Criticisms The study has cultural bias The sample was only based on students from the US, different upbringings may affect how they interacted with Facebook The study has age bias The sample only consists of college aged students, not representative of facebook use of all ages Participants may have given socially desirable answers which would have affected the reliability of the answer The study used self report measures, so people may have not responded truthfully The results lack construct validity This is because complex behaviour like envy and depression are only measured through a single likert scale Application - the development of treatments The use of antipsychotics to treat schizophrenia and how they improve mental health Antipsychotic drugs are a type of medication available on prescription, used to treat schizophrenia. Can be given as a tablet form, liquid or long lasting injection. Types of anti psychotics -​ Conventional (Typical): These mainly block dopamine (a brain chemical) to reduce symptoms like hallucinations and delusions. -​ Atypical: These also block dopamine but target other brain chemicals, like serotonin, which helps with mood and thinking as well. Conventional antipsychotics cause side effects such as tiredness, seizures and neuromuscular problems (loss of movement control), jerky movements on face and body - not everyone will experience side effects Atypical have no Also rapid They target the D2 dopamine receptors in the brain. In schizophrenia it is thought that too many messages are transmitted during a psychotic episode, so by blocking these neurotransmitters it reduces the symptoms Use of antidepressants to treat depression All antidepressants work by increasing the number of neurotransmitters in the brain - serotonin / noradrenaline, which helps people feel less depressed. Antidepressants like SRRIs work by preventing serotonin from being reabsorbed into the presynaptic neuron, leading to a buildup of neurotransmitters in the synapse, which helps neurons communicate better and help people feel less depressed Use of psychotherapy for treating clinical depression and schizophrenia Psychotherapy (by freud) has been combined with a behaviourist approach ‘CBT - cognitive behavioural therapy’ (use of therapist) CBT originates from Ellis’ ABC model, used to discuss with the client (ethical as patient has active role in treatment) Adds 2 more letters: D - dispute the irrational beliefs as they are experiencing a delusion E - ‘effect’ of changing interpretation of the event, should view it in a less irrational way HOW CBT WORKS CBT is a short term treatment that can last 5 to 20 sessions. Clients can be seen one on one, as a group or online. This makes treatment more accessible, less effort to attend sessions Client has to identify problems and break them down into thoughts, feelings and actions. Therapists will help clients find ways for them to overcome the problem which has been identified. Therapists will support the client to reevaluate negative thoughts and attitudes and view them from a more positive attitude CBT and schizophrenia CBT is effective for people with both moderate and severe depression. Therapist and client will focus on negative thoughts and emotions they are experiencing which make them feel depressed, and reevaluate behaviour and thoughts. CBT and schizophrenia CBT helps people with schizophrenia by supporting them in a nonjudgemental way to reevaluate what their voices are saying, and providing ways of coping with them. This also helps people overcome negative symptoms of schizophrenia The development of neuropsychology for studying schizophrenia and depression Neuropsychological tests are designed to help doctors understand cognitive and behavioural problems a patient is experiencing. Tests are standardised to be a reliable measure, and compared to normal samples to see issues. E.g. WCST (wisconsin card sorting test) tests function of the frontal lobe of the brain. Brain imaging techniques Neuropsychologists used brain imaging techniques to look at differences in brain structure and activity in people with depression and schizophrenia, to help them better understand conditions ​ PET scan allows neuropsychologists to see brain activity by injecting a radioactive tracer into the patient and travels up to the brian to show effect of medicine on neurotransmitters, shows why some work and some don’t, helping create more effective future treatments 13 marker Neuropsychology is of limited use when explaining human behaviour. Evaluate this statement. In your answer you must refer to the biological explanation of schizophrenia and at least one other area of psychology you have studied. (13 marks) Neuropsychology is the study of human behaviour and emotion in relation to how the brain functions by looking at biological factors, e.g. neurotransmitters and the brain structure. Neuropsychology theories have limited supportive evidence and are not very valid as you cannot question people through testing or experiments like studies can, displaying its 'limited use. However, neuropsychology theories are also scientific, objective, useful and reliable (consistent), which is helpful in explaining human behaviour. The biological theory of schizophrenia (scz.) from the topic psychological problems uses neuropsychology to explain how people with high levels of dopamine (the D2 receptor) in their brain may experience hallucinations, delusions and can cause erratic movement, which are all symptoms linked to scz.. According to neuropsychology, this is because dopamine is a neurotransmitter associated with mood, perception and movement, explaining why people with scz. has moods that fluctuate a lot, showing a useful link between the brain and human behaviour. The theory also explains how brain structure affects the differences in brain activity of people with scz. For example, the frontal cortex region has decreased blood flow and is less frequently activated when certain tasks are carried out. Additionally, the prefrontal cortex, the 'control centre,' appears to be defective, which explains how we lose control over psychological functioning, e.g. being organised. As the theory only focuses on nature, it ignores the effect of nurture on development of scz., showing how neuropsychology can be of limited use when it only depends on a person's innate traits, e.g. how their brain functions, not fully explaining every reason behind human behaviour. The brain still needs to interact with what is happening in the environment to be able to reduce symptoms. Moreover, scz. is too broad a label that covers a diversity of symptoms, with highly complex behaviours. It may be unrealistic to say this disorder is a result of the brain not working properly, when the disorder may be partially constructed by society. This again shows the limited use of neuropsychology when explaining human behaviour, as people have their opinions on what they think and see scz. as. However, the theory involves brain scans, which are reliable as you can repeatedly test on multiple patients, making it scientific as it gives an objective result, showing how neuropsychology can be of helpful use to explain human behaviour The activation synthesis theory of dreaming from the topic sleep and dreaming uses neuropsychology to explain how dreams have real meaning. The theory states that random surges of brain activity stimulate the higher parts of the brain the cerebral cortex. This part of the brain tries to make sense (synthesis) of the brain activity happening during our REM sleep (activation), explaining how dreams occur and proving that the random brain activity is what leads to our dreams being strange. Neuropsychology is used to explain this human behaviour, where powerful electrical signals pass through the brain from pons and the pons operate like a message station, sending these random surges and activating our limbic system (controls functions including memory, behaviour and emotion). The theory is highly reductionist, as dreams are highly complex and packed full of meaning, meaning it is too simplistic to try and reduce it to random electrical activity occurring in the brain, presenting the limited use in neuropsychology when explaining human behaviour. Furthermore, the theory is challenged by evidence that shares dreams are not as random as neural activity in the brain. Research suggests that dreams are highly coherent, often having a direct relationship to experiences from the day and the continuity to some people's dreams, i.e. recurring dreams with similar themes, go against the idea of randomness happening in the brain. However, the theory is scientific and objective, as you are able to observe brain activity, compared to a non-scientific approach, e.g. Freud whose theory is too subjective and therefore difficult to test. In conclusion, schizophrenia and dreams are both highly complex and broad topics. There are many symptoms and behaviours behind schizophrenia, and many reasons behind dreams too. It is good to look at the biological side of these topics as it is not only useful, but also helpful to explaining human behaviour. However, just looking at neuropsychology would be too reductionist. Biology interacts with its surroundings, so it would be more useful to look at both neuropsychology and the environment to investigate such complex human behaviour. NO PERSONAL OPINION IN CONCLUSION, so no 'l' rite schizophrenia out fully then put (scz.). Use scz from then on. Same for participants (Ps)