Psychology Study Guide PDF

Ch 9: Memory Memory — the process of retaining, retrieving, and using info about things that aren’t currently present Atkinson and Shiffrin's 3 store model of memory (1968) — proposed in 1968 & with three stores that pass info into memory … input > sensory memory > attention > working memory long...

Ch 9: Memory Memory — the process of retaining, retrieving, and using info about things that aren’t currently present Atkinson and Shiffrin's 3 store model of memory (1968) — proposed in 1968 & with three stores that pass info into memory … input > sensory memory > attention > working memory long term memory sensory memory: sensory information from the environment is briefly held for just a fraction of a second short term memory: information that we focus on moves from sensory memory into stm where it is actively processed; information can be manipulated for tasks like problem-solving & reasoning long term memory: information that is rehearsed or encoded deeply can transfer into long-term memory where it can be stored indefinitely Baddeley and Hitch (1974) — working memory was the “workbench” for manipulating information in STM … we use it in complex tasks such as comprehension, learning, and reasoning phonological loop ○ phonological store - holds for a few seconds ○ articulatory rehearsing - repeats to limit decay visuospatial sketchpad ○ visual imagery Capacity of STM — George Miller published his cognitive psychology textbook (The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two) in 1956 that suggested that most people can hold 5-9 items in mind at a time digit span task - assesses working memory capacity by requiring participants to remember and repeat a sequence of digits (numbers) in the correct order. the test typically starts with a short sequence (ex. 3 numbers) and then gradually increases in length. word lists - participants are shown or read a list of words and then asked to recall them, immediately or after a delay. change detection task - participants are shown a visual display with several items (shapes or colors), which then disappears briefly. it reappears with one or more items changed and participants must identify the changes. LTM — information that is rehearsed or encoded deeply can transfer into long-term memory where it can be stored indefinitely implicit - memory that unconsciously influences behavior ○ priming: a stimulus can have unconscious influence on perception of other stimuli ○ procedural: skill memory, memory for actions…no memory of where or when learned…perform procedures without being consciously aware of how to do them propaganda effect: more likely to rate statements as true if you have read or heard them before warrington & weiskrantz (1968) studied this in patients who had korsakoff’s syndrome, a conditioning that impairs the ability to form new memories. they used fragmented pictures and over repeated trials patients became better at recognizing the images, even though they couldn’t consciously remember seeing them before. ○ conditioning: classical & operant classical - pairing a neutral stimulus with a reflexive response … ivan pavlov & john watson operant - pairing a behavior and an outcome … b.f. skinner explicit memory - conscious recollection of events experienced and facts learned ○ episodic: personal events, recollection … involves mental time travel ○ semantic: facts, general knowledge … does not involve mental time travel Amnesia — general term that describes memory loss retrograde - memory loss for the period BEFORE brain damage … ex. individuals in a car accident not remembering what happened leading up to the accident anterograde - loss of ability to form new memories … ex. henry molaison’s case (underwent surgery to reduce seizures, but he was unable to form new long term memories after the procedure) Hippocampus (Medial Temporal Lobe) in memory — memory consolidation, transferring memory from short term to long term … happens typically during REM sleep … moving from hippocampus dependent to cortical networks  anterior hippocampus - object recognition memory posterior hippocampus - spatial memory amygdala - emotional memory Consolidation — transferring memory from short term to long term … happens typically during REM sleep … moving from hippocampus dependent to cortical networks Reconsolidation — the process of replacing or disrupting a stored memory with a new version of the memory Reconstructive processes in memory — changes in the content of memory that distort reality confabulation - supplying additional information that was not apart of the original event ○ memory = actual event + knowledge, experience, and expectation dan schacter’s “sins of memory” - ○ misattribution - source monitoring error, misidentifying source of memories ○ suggestibility - false memories are implanted by information we hear after the event ○ bias - our current knowledge distorts what we recall about the past Applications of this stuff to studying — encoding, storing, retrieving, memory techniques, & sleep encoding - focus and active engagement … connecting new material to prior knowledge improves retention storing - repeated exposure (spaced repetition) strengthens long-term storage, and chunking breaks info into manageable parts retrieving - active recall and practice testing strengthen retrieval. actively recalling info enhances long-term memory. sleep - aids memory consolidation, helping the brain process and strengthen learned material. Cellular mechanisms of memory — dendritic spines - tiny protrusions from dendrites grow and provide greater synaptic surface area … most plastic in the hippocampus  neurogenesis - thousands of new neurons are formed in the hippocampus every day … highly plastic young neurons may be important for memory formation Long-term potentiation (LTP) - long-lasting increases synaptic strength that happen when the presynaptic and postsynaptic cells are consistently active at the same time Long-term depression (LTD) - decreases from lack of consistent activity NMDA receptor for glutamate - major excitatory neurotransmitter, only functions after repeated stimulation, begins making changes in synaptic strength very rapidly Ch 10: Sleep Sleep — an active state of consciousness Sleep stages — EEG waves, sleep cycles wakefulness - alpha & beta activity ○ alpha: relaxed & drowsy ○ beta activity: focused stage 1 sleep - theta activity stage 2 sleep - theta activity > sleep spindle > k complex stage 3 sleep - slow wave sleep, delta activity REM sleep - rapid eye movements, loss of muscle tone, brain activity at waking levels result in paradoxical sleep theta activity > beta activity sleep cycles - 4 to 5 per night, each is about 90 mins long Neural networks for sleep — promotes sleep - the ventrolateral preoptic nucleus (VLPO) in the hypothalamus promotes wakefulness - locus coeruleus, raphe nucleus, tuberomammillary nucleus mutually inhibitory - inhibit each other to create a “flip-flop switch” that stabilizes either sleep or wakefulness. when the VLPO is active, it strongly inhibits the arousal network, promoting sleep. when the arousal network is active, it inhibits the VLPO, promoting wakefulness. REM sleep — neurons in the pons release acetylcholine, which activates pathways that inhibit motor neurons in the spinal cords, leading to muscle paralysis … PGO waves spread from pons to the lateral geniculate nucleus of the thalamus to the occipital lobe which is responsible for creating visual and sensory components of dreams … the frontal lobe is inhibited which results in less logic & reasoning … and then the hippocampus is less active vital role in learning and memory, forgetting, insight and problem solving Circadian rhythms — cycles of bodily functions, control sleep and wakefulness through hormone release (about a day in length, 25 hours free running) … needs light input SCN - suprachiasmatic nucleus receives direct input from the optic chiasm, where signals from the eyes about ambient light are processed. the light help synchronizes the SCN with the external day - night cycle. pineal gland - secretes melatonin, hormone that helps regulate sleep Theories of why we sleep — restoration & recuperation theory - states that we sleep to recover … physical and mental exercise increases slow wave sleep at night & high metabolism animals sleep more related - glial cells clear toxins from the brain during sleep survival theory of sleep - sleep protects animals during dangerous times all warm-blooded vertebrates sleep - prey animals sleep a little & predators sleep a lot Effects of sleep deprivation — short term - irritability, difficulty maintaining attention (17 - 19 hours awake =.05% BAC) longer term - frequent microsleeps, hallucinations, paranoia, and death chronic - health, stress levels, and heart disease, obesity risk (interferes with glucose regulation and increases appetite) ○ other effects - cognitive impairment, memory lapses, amnesia, impaired moral judgment, decreased reaction time, tremors, muscle aches, variable heart rate, increased risk of heart disease, compromised immune system Sleep disorders — insomnia - not getting enough sleep to feel rested narcolepsy - excessive daytime sleepiness with sudden sleep onset (brief 10-15 minute sleeps)  ○ cataplexy - loss of muscle tone while awake parasomnia - REM and NREM disorders ○ NREM - sleep walking, sleep eating, & night terrors ○ REM - acting out dreams Sleep hygiene — night: 7 - 8 hours every night! … go to bed and get up at the same time every day, no persona screens within an hour of bed, sleep in complete darkness, no caffeine after 2-4 pm, no alcohol before bed (2-4 hours before) morning: bright light and exercise in the morning Ch 11: Language Characteristics of a natural language — generative (creative), regular (structured), arbitrary, referential, species universal, species specific generative - it allows speakers to create an infinite variety of sentences and phrases that may have never been used before. this creativity is possible because language rules can be applied recursively to produce new sentences. regular, structured - specific rules for how words and sounds can be arranged. arbitrary - the connection between a word’s form and its meaning is arbitrary. ex. dog has no resemblance to an actual dog. referential - allows speakers to refer to objects, actions, and ideas, even when they are not present. it enables abstract thought and conversation about past and future. species universal - language differs across cultures, the capacity to learn and use language, however, is shared by all humans. species specific - while many species communicate, human language is unique in its complexity, creativity, and use of grammar. Parts of language — phonemes, morphology (phonemic restoration effect), lexical decision task, syntax, semantics, pragmatics phonemes - smallest unit of sound in a language that distinguishes one word from another. ex. /b/ & /p/ changes “bat” and “pat.” morphology - the study of the smallest units of meaning in a language. ex. apple has 1 morpheme; apples has 2 morphemes, “apple & -s”  ○ phonemic restoration effect: demonstrates how listeners can perceptually “fill in” missing phonemes in speech based on context usually when it is masked by a noise ○ lexical decision task: participants decide whether a string of letters is a word or a non-word. this task helps researchers understand how words are stored in and accessed in the brain. syntax - the rules that govern the structure of sentences. It involves the arrangement of words and phrases to create grammatically correct sentences. semantics - the study of meaning in language. It concerns how words and sentences represent objects, actions, and ideas. semantics also includes understanding word meanings and how they combine to form more complex ideas. pragmatics - deals with the use of language in social contexts and how context influences the interpretation of meaning. ex. “can you pass the salt?” is a question but pragmatically a polite request. Aphasia — communication problems resulting from damage to the language areas of the brain. broca’s aphasia - expressive/nonfluent aphasia; caused by damage in the left frontal lobe. people with this damage often struggle to form words and sentences, but have little to no issue in understanding language. ○ anomia: inability to recall words ○ a grammatical: lacks grammatical constructions wernicke’s aphasia - damage to the wernicke area (usually in left temporal lobe) leads to difficulties in language comprehension and they may produce fluent but nonsensical/word salad speech. ○ neologism: inserting a made up word ○ inserting a real but inappropriate word, just doesn’t necessarily fit The Wernicke-Geschwind model of language — explains how different brain areas work together to process language. each area has a specific role, contributing to both understanding and producing language. auditory processing - when we hear sounds, the primary auditory cortex processes them and sends the information to Wernicke’s area, where sounds are interpreted as words with meaning. visual processing - when we read, the visual cortex first processes written words. this information then travels to the angular gyrus, which helps convert  visual information into sounds and meanings that Wernicke’s area can understand. broca’s area - once we understand language, broca’s area organizes speech production. it controls the muscles needed to speak and helps us form grammatically correct sentences arcuate fasciculus - this bundle of nerves connects Broca’s area and Wernicke’s area, allowing them to communicate. This connection helps us turn ideas into speech and repeat words we’ve heard. ○ AVWABA — auditory > visual > wernicke’s > angular gyrus > broca’s area > arcuate fasciculus Dyslexia — developmental disorder characterized by difficulty reading surface dyslexia - difficulty with the appearance of language deep dyslexia - difficulty with the sound structure of language differences in the left hemisphere language areas - less activity in wernicke’s area, compared with fluent readers ○ compensatory activity in the left anterior language areas and the right hemisphere Language and brain lateralization — hemispheres are separate but interconnected by corpus callosum left hemisphere - dominant for fine motor control and is dominant for language in 69% of left-handed people ○ planum temporale - larger in left hemisphere and may be associated w language fluency right hemisphere - left hemisphere is dominant for language in 92% of right-handed people … has greater spatial abilities & better at perceiving and understanding emotion Split-brain patients — essentially have two independent hemispheres … they have undergone surgery to sever the corpus callosum (the bundle of nerves connecting the brain’s two hemispheres) often as a treatment for severe epilepsy. This separation can lead to unusual behaviors regarding language processing, as the two hemispheres cannot communicate directly. For example, a split-brain patient may be able to name an object shown to the right visual field (processed by the left hemisphere) but may struggle to name an object shown to the left visual field (processed by the right hemisphere, which lacks direct language functions). Language acquisition; is language innate? — babies and children may learn language through what they hear and what they don’t hear positive evidence - the info available to children about which sequences of sounds/words word in a language negative evidence - the information available to children about which sequences do not work ○ direct negative evidence: sequences they never or rarely hear ○ indirect negative evidence: sequences labeled as mistakes is it innate? noam chomsky argues that humans have an innate “language acquisition device” that enables them to learn language. this view is supported by the fact that children acquire language rapidly and universally, even without explicit instruction. ○ alissa newport’s less is more hypothesis: babies’ limited abilities in memory, attention, etc. limit their language input, allowing them to learn a simplified version Ch 12: Decision-making Behavioral economics — combines insights from psychology and economics to understand how people make decisions … it challenges the assumption that individuals always act in their own best interests. with perfect logic and complete information Predictably irrational — suggests that people consistently make irrational decisions in specific, predictable ways. we are shown that biases such as overvaluing short-term gains or being influenced by irrelevant factors lead people to behave irrationally. Delay discounting (and how it works in the brain) — people diminish the value of future gains the longer they have to wait for them … the limbic system - (including the amygdala and nucleus accumbens) is more active for immediate rewards and is associated with impulsive, emotional decision-making. the prefrontal cortex - (involved in planning and self-control) is more active when people consider delayed rewards. ○ people with stronger prefrontal cortex control are often better at delay gratification and making choices aligned with long-term goals. System 1 and 2 decision making — system 1 - intuitive & fast … quick, low effort, less control ○ relies on heuristics, or mental shortcuts, which make decision-making quick but can lead to biases and errors. system 2 - rational & slow … slow, more effort, deliberate control ○ responsible for rational, conscious thinking, especially for complex decisions. However, it requires more mental energy and effort, so we don’t use it as often, especially in familiar or low-stakes situations. Gains, losses, and risks — people perceive gains and losses differently, often valuing losses more heavily than equivalent gains—a concept called loss aversion. this bias means people are more motivated to avoid losses than to acquire gains. risk aversion - when people prefer safer, certain outcomes over riskier ones, even if the risky option has a potentially higher payoff. risk-seeking behavior - occurs in situations where people face potential losses, making them more willing to take risks to avoid a certain loss. Rational choice theory vs prospect theory — rational choice theory - assumes that people make decisions by systematically evaluating all options and choosing the one that maximizes personal utility or benefit. It assumes people are logical and consistent in their choices. prospect theory - assumes that people treat the same dollar loss as psychologically larger than the same dollar gain. The framing effect — describes how people’s decisions change depending on how information is presented, even if the information itself is the same. ex. people are more likely to choose a medical treatment if it’s framed as having a “90% survival rate” than as a “10% mortality rate.” Plus some neuroeconomics — the study of decision-making using insights from economics (provides models & tasks), psychology (provides models and tasks), and neuroscience (links the brain with behavior). insula - of the prefrontal cortex … active when people bet everything to double earnings … damage results in impulsive decisions