Psychology Past Paper PDF 2024-2025 Fall Term

12/1/24 PSYC101 Essential Topics in Psychology I Mehmet Akif Güzel, PhD...

12/1/24 PSYC101 Essential Topics in Psychology I Mehmet Akif Güzel, PhD Assoc Prof. Cognitive Psychology Department of Psychology Abdullah Gül University, FOA11 2024-2025 Fall term Chapter 7 Memory 1 The Foundations of Memory Memory: the process by which we encode, store, and retrieve information. Encoding: recording information in a form usable to memory. Storage: the maintenance of material saved in memory. Retrieval: locating material and bringing it into awareness so that it can be used. © McGraw Hill 2 2 1  12/1/24 Memory is built on three basic processes—encoding, storage, and retrieval—that are analogous to a computer’s keyboard, hard drive, and software to access the information for display on the screen. The analogy is not perfect, however, because human memory is less precise than a computer. © McGraw Hill 3 3 In this three-stage model of memory, information initially recorded by the person’s sensory system enters sensory memory, which momentarily holds the information. The information then moves to short-term memory, which stores it for 15 to 25 seconds. Finally, the information can move into long-term memory, which is relatively permanent. Whether the information moves from short-term to long-term memory depends on the kind and amount of rehearsal of the material that is performed. © McGraw Hill C Squared Studios/Getty Images 4 4 2  12/1/24 Sensory Memory Sensory memory: the initial, momentary storage of information, lasting only an instant. The first storehouse of information. Operates as a kind of snapshot that stores information for a brief moment in time. Iconic memory reflects information from the visual system. Echoic memory stores auditory information coming from the ears. If sensory memory does not pass into short-term memory, it is lost for good. © McGraw Hill 5 5 Short-Term Memory Short-term memory: memory that holds information for 15 to 25 seconds. We can hold up to 7 items, or “chunks,” of information in short-term memory, with variations up to plus or minus 2 chunks. Chunk: a group of separate pieces of information stored as a single unit in short-term memory. For example: P B S F O X C N N A B C C B S M T V N B C can be chunked as PBS, FOX, CNN, ABC, CBS, MTV, NBC. © McGraw Hill 6 6 3  12/1/24 Rehearsal Rehearsal: the repetition of information that has entered short-term memory. Maintains information in short-term memory when repeated. Allows transfer of information into long-term memory. Elaborative rehearsal occurs when information is considered and organized in some fashion. (vs. maintenance rehearsal / rote repetition) Mnemonics are strategies for organizing information in a way that makes it more likely to be remembered. © McGraw Hill 7 7 Working Memory Working memory: a memory system that holds information temporarily while actively manipulating and rehearsing that information. It contains a central executive processor that is involved in reasoning, decision making, and planning. It also has three subsystems: The visual store; The verbal store; and The episodic buffer—which contains information that represents events and occurrences. © McGraw Hill 8 8 4  12/1/24 Working memory is an active “workspace” in which information is retrieved and manipulated and in which information is held through rehearsal. Working memory includes a central executive processor that coordinates the visual store, verbal store, and episodic buffer. © McGraw Hill Source: Adapted from Lexcellent, C. (2019). Human memory and material memory. Cham, Switzerland: Springer Nature. 9 9 Long-Term Memory Long-term memory: stores information on a relatively permanent basis, although it may be difficult to retrieve. Almost unlimited capacity. Evidence for long-term memory: People with certain kinds of brain damage may have poor memory performance. Results of laboratory memory studies. The ability to recall information in a list depends on where in the list an item appears (called serial position effect). Primacy effect: best remembered are items that come early. Recency effect: best remembered are items presented late. © McGraw Hill 10 10 5  12/1/24 Long-Term Memory Modules As with short-term memory, long-term memory appears to have several components. Declarative memory refers to factual information; it is sometimes called explicit memory, and is further subdivided into: Semantic memory: for general knowledge; and Episodic memory: for events that occur in a particular time, place, or context. In contrast with declarative memory, procedural memory refers to memory for skills and habits. Also referred as nondeclarative memory or implicit memory. © McGraw Hill 11 11 Long-term memory can be subdivided into several types. What type of long-term memory is involved in your recollection of the moment you first arrived on your campus at the start of college? What type of long- term memory is involved in remembering the lyrics to a song, compared with the tune of a song? © McGraw Hill 12 12 6  12/1/24 Semantic Networks Semantic networks: mental representations of clusters of interconnected information. Activating one memory triggers the activation of related memories in a process known as spreading activation. © McGraw Hill 13 13 The Neuroscience of Memory Engram: the physical memory trace in the brain that corresponds to a memory. Hippocampus: a part of the brain’s limbic system, it plays a central role in the consolidation of memories. Amygdala: a part of the brain’s limbic system, it is involved with memories involving emotion. © McGraw Hill 14 14 7  12/1/24 MODULE 21 - Recalling Long-Term Memories What causes difficulties and failures in remembering? One common occurrence is the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon: the inability to recall information that one realizes one knows. It occurs as a result of the difficulty of retrieving information from long-term memory. © McGraw Hill 15 15 Recalling Long-Term Memories What causes difficulties and failures in remembering? One common occurrence is the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon: the inability to recall information that one realizes one knows. It occurs as a result of the difficulty of retrieving information from long-term memory. Memory Tasks Retrieval cues are stimuli that allow us to more easily recall information that is in long-term memory. Recall: memory task in which specific information must be retrieved. Recognition: memory task in which individuals are presented with a stimulus and asked whether they have been exposed to it in the past or to identify it from a list of alternatives. © McGraw Hill 16 16 8  12/1/24 Levels of Processing Levels-of-processing theory: a theory of memory that emphasizes the degree to which new material is mentally analyzed. At shallow levels, information is processed merely in terms of its physical and sensory aspects. At the deepest level of processing, information is analyzed in terms of its meaning (i.e., semantic features). © McGraw Hill 17 17 Explicit and Implicit Memory Explicit memory: intentional or conscious recollection of information. Implicit memory: memories of which people are not consciously aware. Can affect subsequent performance and behavior. Closely related to the prejudice and discrimination people can exhibit without being aware of their underlying beliefs. Priming: occurs when exposure to a word or concept (called a prime) later makes it easier to recall related information. © McGraw Hill 18 18 9  12/1/24 Flashbulb Memories Flashbulbs memories: memories of a specific, important, or surprising emotionally significant event that are recalled easily and with vivid imagery. Source amnesia occurs when an individual has a memory for some material but cannot recall where he or she encountered it (it is also called source monitoring error). © McGraw Hill 19 19 Constructive Processes in Memory: Rebuilding the Past Constructive processes: processes in which memories are influenced by the meaning we give to events. Not just direct prior experience but also guesses and inferences. Schemas: organized bodies of information stored in memory that bias the way new information is interpreted, stored, and recalled. © McGraw Hill 20 20 10  12/1/24 Memory in the Courtroom: The Eyewitness on Trial Eyewitness (eyewitness memory) identification of suspects, as well as memory of other details of crimes, is subject to significant errors. The sight of a weapon acts like a perceptual magnet, drawing attention away from other details (called “weapon focus”). The specific wording of questions can also lead to errors. In some cases, the more confident a witness, the less accurate his or her recollections are. The problem is even more acute with children. Their memories are highly vulnerable to others’ influence. They are especially susceptible to influence in emotional or stressful situations. © McGraw Hill 21 21 Repressed and False Memories Repressed memories are apparent recollections of events that are initially so shocking that the mind pushed them into the unconscious. Freud’s psychoanalytic theory suggests they are hidden for a lifetime unless triggered by certain circumstances or probing. Many such memories may be inaccurate or even wholly false. False memories may be at work when people embrace so-called “fake news.” A person hears or reads news from an unreliable source and later may not be able to recall the source, yet he or she still believes in its accuracy. © McGraw Hill 22 22 11  12/1/24 Autobiographical Memory Autobiographical memory: our recollection of our own life experiences. Encompasses episodic memories we hold about ourselves. The same constructive processes that make us inaccurately recall the behaviors of others also reduce the accuracy of autobiographical memories. We tend to forget information that is incompatible with the way in which we currently see ourselves. Particular periods of life are remembered more easily than others: In late adulthood, people tend to best remember the periods in which they experienced major transitions. © McGraw Hill 23 23 Forgetting: Memory Failures There are benefits to forgetting. Forgetting helps keep unwanted information from interfering with retrieving information that is wanted. Forgetting also permits us to form general impressions and recollections. Forgetting forces our brain to relearn and remember better in the future. © McGraw Hill 24 24 12  12/1/24 FIGURE 22 FIGURE 1 In his classic work, Psychologist Hermann Ebbinghaus found that the most rapid forgetting occurs in the first 9 hours after exposure to new material. However, the rate of forgetting then slows down and declines very little even after many days have passed. Access the text alternative for slide images. © McGraw Hill Source: Adapted from Ebbinghaus, H. (1885/1913). Memory: A contribution to experimental psychology (H. A. Roger & C. E. Bussenius, Trans.). New York: Columbia University Press. 25 25 Why We Forget Decay: the loss of Interference: Cue-dependent information through information in forgetting: occurs its nonuse. memory when there are Assumes that disrupts the insufficient memory traces, the recall of other retrieval cues to physical changes information. rekindle when new material information in is learned, simply memory. disintegrate over time. © McGraw Hill 26 26 13  12/1/24 Proactive and Retroactive Interference Proactive interference: information learned earlier disrupts the recall of newer material and progresses in time. Retroactive interference: material that was learned later disrupts the retrieval of information that was learned earlier and retrogresses in time. Proactive interference progresses in time; retroactive interference retrogresses in time, working backward. © McGraw Hill 27 27 Memory Dysfunctions: Afflictions of Forgetting Alzheimer’s disease: a progressive brain disorder that leads to a gradual and irreversible decline in cognitive abilities. Fourth-leading cause of death among adults in the U.S. Amnesia: memory loss without other mental difficulties. Retrograde amnesia: memory is lost for occurrences prior to a certain event, but not for new events. Anterograde amnesia: memory is lost for events that follow an injury. Korsakoff’s syndrome: a disease that afflicts long-term alcoholics. Includes hallucinations and a tendency to repeat stories. © McGraw Hill 28 28 14