Psychology Review PDF

Chapter 1 Defining Psychology and Exploring its Roots ❖ Psychology = the scientific study of behavior and mental processes Science → psychology uses systematic methods to observe human behavior and draw conclusions Goals: Describe, predict, and explain...

Chapter 1 Defining Psychology and Exploring its Roots ❖ Psychology = the scientific study of behavior and mental processes Science → psychology uses systematic methods to observe human behavior and draw conclusions Goals: Describe, predict, and explain behavior Behavior → everything we do that can be directly observed Mental processes → thoughts, feelings, and motives that each of us experiences privately but that cannot be observed directly The Psychological Frame of Mind ❖ There are four attitudes to the scientific approach to psychology 1. Critical Thinking a. The process of thinking deeply and actively, asking questions, and evaluating evidence b. Question and test what some people say are facts 2. Curiosity 3. Skepticism 4. Objectivity a. The Empirical method → gaining knowledge by observing events, collecting data, and reasoning logically Psychology as the Science of All Human Behavior ❖ Freud → believed most of human behavior is caused by dark unconscious impulses passing for expression ❖ Really, we need to delve into all aspects of people for psychology Psychology in Historical Perspective ❖ Psychology has roots in philosophy and the natural sciences of biology and physiology ❖ Wilhelm Wundt was the father of the academic discipline of Psychology ❖ He performed an experiment that measured the time lag between the instant a person heard a sound and when that person pressed a telegraph key to say they heard it ❖ Structuralism developed by Wundt and collaborators Focuses on identifying the elemental parts/structures of human mind Used introspection → looking in, thinking deeply about your feelings ❖ William James focuses more on what the purpose of the mind is ❖ His method is called Functionalism Probes the functions or purposes of the mind and behavior in the individual’s adaptation to the environment Focuses on human interactions with the outside world to understand the purpose of thoughts Sees the mind as adaptive and questions why that is beneficial to us ❖ Darwin’s Theory of Evolution  Natural selection → evolutionary process in which organisms that are best adapted to environment will survive and reproduce FIts in with functionalism Supported by observation Contemporary Approaches to Psychology Biological Approach ❖ A focus on the body, especially the brain and nervous system ❖ Neuroscience → the scientific study of the structure, function, development, genetics, and biochemistry of they nervous system Emphasizes that the brain and nervous system are central to understanding behavior, thought, and emotion Emotions have a physical basis in the brain → electrical impulses throughout brain cells that release chemicals Behavioral Approach ❖ Emphasizes the scientific study of observable behavioral responses and their environmental determinants ❖ Focuses on visible behaviors, NOT thoughts and feelings ❖ Watson and Skinner are the fathers of behaviorism Skinner → emphasized psych should be about what people do, not what they feel Believed reward and punishment determine behavior Psychodynamic Approach ❖ Emphasizes unconscious thought, the conflict between biological drives, and early childhood experiences ❖ Sexual and aggressive impulses are buried deep within the unconscious mind and influence how ppl think, feel, and behave ❖ Freud is the father of psychodynamic theory and his theory was the basis for psychoanalysis → when an analyst unlocks a person’s unconscious conflicts Humanistic Approach ❖ Emphasizes a person’s positive qualities, the capacity for positive growth, and the freedom to choose one’s destiny ❖ People have the ability to control their lives and are not simply controlled by the environment ❖ People can choose to live by higher human values and free will Cognitive Approach ❖ Emphasizes the mental processes involved in knowing: how we direct our attention, perceive, remember, think, and solve problems  ❖ Your brain houses a “mind” whose mental processes allow you to remember, make decisions, plan, set goals, and be creative ❖ The mind is an active, problem-solving system Evolutionary Approach ❖ Evolution molds our physical features, decision making, level of aggressiveness, fears, and mating patterns ❖ The way we are is traceable to problems early humans faced in adapting to their environments Sociocultural Approach ❖ Examines influences of social and cultural environments on behavior ❖ Understanding a person’s behavior requires knowing about the cultural context in which the behavior occurs ❖ Includes cross-cultural research → research that compares individuals in various cultures to see how they differ psychologically Psychology’s Scientific Method ❖ Scientific Method 1. Observing some phenomenon a. Wanting to know how or why something is the way it is b. Scientists study variables, anything that can change c. Theory → a broad idea or set of closely related ideas that attempts to explain observations 2. Formulating Hypotheses and Predictions a. Hypothesis → a testable prediction that derives logically from a theory b. Theory can generate many hypotheses 3. Testing thru empirical research a. Operational definition provides an objective description of how a variable is going to be measured and observed in a particular study b. Data analysis → crunching the numbers mathematically to see if they support predictions 4. Drawing conclusions a. Based on data analyses, scientists draw conclusions from research b. If the results of study support prediction → theory may gain credibility c. Replication → A scientist tries to reproduce a study to get the same result i. If they do get the same results, across dif methods and researchers, the result becomes reliable 5. Evaluating conclusions Types of Psychological Research Descriptive Research  ❖ Describing some phenomenon → determining basic dimensions and defining what this is, how often it occurs, etc. ❖ Cannot prove what causes phenomenon, but reveal important info ❖ Includes 1. Observation a. Must be systematic b. Must know whom, when, and where you are observing and how you will make the observations 2. Surveys and Interviews a. Problems → people tend to answer in a way that will make them look good b. Language must be clear and understandable ❖ Case studies In depth look at a single individual Performed mainly by clinical psychologists when an individual’s life cannot be duplicated Can involve in depth explorations of particular families or social groups ❖ Value of Descriptive Research Allows researchers to get a sense of something but cannot answer questions about how and why things are the way they are Correlational Research ❖ Tells us about the relationships between variables ❖ Purpose is to examine whether and how two variables change together ❖ Degree of relationship between two variables is expressed as a numerical value called a correlational coefficient ( r ) Statistic that tells us the strength and direction of relationship between two variables Value always falls between -1 and 1 Number tells us strength → the closer to +/-1 the stronger The sign tells us about direction of relationship between two variables Positive sign → as one increases, the other increases, or vise versa Negative sign → as one increases the other decreases and vice versa Zero correlation → there is no systematic relationship between the two variables ❖ Correlation does NOT equal causation There is often a third variable, or confound Ex: correlation found between ice cream cones purchased and people drowning Confounding variable = summer ❖ Longitudinal Designs Involves observing and measuring the same variables periodically over time Can suggest potential causal relationship because if one variable is thought to cause changes in the other, it should at least come before that variable in time Experimental research ❖ Determines whether a causal relationship exists between variables ❖ Experiment → carefully regulated procedure in which the researcher manipulates one or more variables that are believed the influence some other variable ❖ Random assignment → the researchers assign participants to groups by chance, reducing the likelihood that the experiment’s results will be due to any preexisting differences between groups Improved by using a large group of participants ❖ Experimental and control groups Experiments can involve one or more experimental groups and one or more control groups Researcher manipulates independent variable Experimental group consists of participants in experiment who receive treatment that is of interest to researcher Control group is as much like experimental group as possible and is treated like experimental group except for treatment Comparison group ❖ Within Participant design Ensures control and experimental group are similar bc participants serve as their own control group Researcher has same group experience various conditions ❖ Quasi-experimental design Does not include random assignment of participants to condition Used for studies that examine differences between groups of people who have had dif experiences ❖ Cautions about Experimental Research Validity → soundness of conclusions that a researcher draws from experiment External validity → the degree to which an experimental design really reflects the real-world issues it is supposed to Internal validity → the degree to which changes in the dependent variable are due to the manipulation of the independent variable Was bias involved ❖ Experimenter bias Demand characteristics → any aspects of a study that communicate to the participants how the experimenter wants them to behave Experimenter bias occurs when the experimenter’s expectations influence the outcome of the research ❖ Research Participant Bias and the Placebo Effect Research participants may have expectations about what they are supposed to do/how they should behave Placebo effect → Participants who receive the placebo think they got the real drug and report effects that they don’t actually experience Double blind experiment → ensures that there is no bias Neither experimenter nor participants know who got the treatment Research Samples and Settings The Research Sample ❖ When psychologists conduct a study they want to be able to draw a conclusion about a larger population ❖ Population → the group the investigator wants to draw conclusions about ❖ Sample → a group from the population that the investigator studies ❖ Researcher uses a random sample in order to mirror the population as closely as possible Research Setting ❖ Drawbacks of Labratory setting: It is almost impossible for the participants to not know they are being studied The lab is not the real world so people may behave unnaturally Ppl who are willing to go to a university lab may not represent groups from diverse backgrounds Some aspects of mind and behavior cannot be examined in a lab ❖ Naturalistic observation → observing behavior in a real world setting Sporting events, childcare centers, malls, etc. Conducting Ethical Research ❖ Principles of ethical research: Informed consent Confidentiality Debriefing Explaining the use of deception in a study in full Chapter 2 The Nervous System ❖ The body’s electrochemical communication circuitry ❖ Human nervous system made up of billions of communicating cells Characteristics of the Nervous System ❖ Complexity Orchestration of billions of nerve cells allow you to sing, dance, write, talk, and think Extensive assemblies of nerve cells participate in many activities at once ❖ Integration Pulls info together From the senses Interconnections of brain cells and pathways link dif parts of the brain  ❖ Adaptability Nervous system and brain act as our agent in adapting to the world Plasticity → the brain’s special capacity for change Brain can be changed by experience Contribute to wiring or rewiring of brain ❖ Electrochemical Transmission Brain and nervous system work as info-processing system powered by electrical impulses and chemical messengers When impulse travels down neuron, it does so electriclaly Impulse communicates with next neuron using chemicals Pathways in the Nervous System ❖ Info flows into brain through input from our senses and the brain pulls it together and gives it meaning ❖ Info moves out of the brain to the rest of the body directing all of the physical things we do ❖ Nervous system has specialized pathways adapted for dif functions ❖ Pathways made up of Afferent nerves Aka Sensory nerves Carry info to brain and spinal cord Communicate info about the external environment and internal body processes (ex. hunger) from sensory receptors to brain and spinal cord Efferent nerves Aka motor nerves Carry info out of the brain and spinal cord Communicate info from brain and spinal cord to other areas of body like muscles and glands to tell them what to do ❖ Neural networks Interconnected groups of nerve cells that integrate sensory input and motor output Divisions of the Nervous System ❖ Central Nervous System (CNS) Brain and spinal cord Contains more than 99% of our nerve cells ❖ Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) Network of nerves that connects brain and spinal cord to other parts of the body Brings info to and from the brain and spinal cord Carries out commands of CNS to execute muscular and glandular activities ❖ 2 major divisions of the PNS Somatic nervous system Afferent nerves (sensory) → function is to convey info from skin and muscles to CNS about conditions like pain and temp  Efferent nerves (motor) → function is to tell muscles what to do Autonomic nervous system Takes messages to and from body’s internal organs Monitors processes like breathing, heart rate, digestion 2 parts: sympathetic nervous system ◆ Arouses body to mobilize for action → involved in stress Parasympathetic nervous system ◆ Calms the body Stress → the body’s response to stressors Circumstances and events that threaten ppl and tax coping abilities When we experience stress, our body readies itself to handle the assault and physiological changes take place Stress response begins with fight or flight Function of sympathetic nervous system Quickly mobilizes body’s physiological resources to prep organism to deal with threats Hands sweating, heart beating, etc We also release corticosteroids Powerful stress hormones Allow us to focus our attention on what needs to be done now Acute stress → momentary stress in response to life experience Chronic stress → stress that goes on continually Leads to persistent autonomic nervous system arousal Because the sympathetic nervous system is working hard to respond to stress, parasympathetic can’t do its job This breaks down immune system Neurons ❖ 2 types of cells in the nervous system: Neurons Nerve cells that handle the info-procesing function Human brain contains 100 billion neurons Average neuron is complex structure w as many as 10,000 physical connections w other cells Glial cells Provide support, nutritional benefits, and other functions in nervous system Most common cells in nervous system 10:1 ratio w neurons Specialized Cell Structure ❖ Neurons share common characteristics Created very early in life ❖ Shape size and connections can change throughout life span  ❖ Structure of a neuron Cell body Contains nucleus → directs manufacturer of substances that neuron needs for growth and maintenance Dendrited Tree like fibers projecting from a neuron Receive info and orient it toward neuron’s cell body Axon Carries info away from cell body toward other cells Very thin but long with many branches Myelin sheath Layer of cells containing fat encases and insulates most axons Speed up transmission of nerve impulses Glial cells provide myelination The Neural Impulse ❖ To transmit info to other neurons, a neuron sends brief electrical impulses thru axon to the next neuron ❖ Axon tube is encased in a membrane that is semi permeable → fluids can sometimes flow in and out ❖ In the fluid inside and outside axon are ions Potassium and sodium (pos) and chlorine (neg) Membrane stops the ions from randomly flowing in or out of cell ❖ Neuron creates electrical signal thru moving pos and neg ions back and forth thru outer membrane ❖ Ions are moved across the membrane thru ion channels → small gates in the membrane that make it semipermeable ❖ When neuron is resting, ion channels are closed and inside of membrane is slightly neg and outside pos → membrane is polarized Polarizations creates voltage between inside and outside of axon wall ❖ Neuron becomes activated when incoming impulse raises neuron voltage and sodium gates at base of axon open Allows pos charged Na ions to flow into neuron → depolarizes membrane ❖ Potassium channels open and K ions move out thru membrane and re polarizes ❖ And it goes this way all the way down the axon ❖ Action potential → the brief wave of pos electrical charge that sweeps down the axon Lasts 1/1000 second because sodium channels can stay open for very short All or nothing principle → once electrical impulse reaches certain level of intensity it fires and moves all the way down the axon without losing intensity Synapses and Neurotransmitters ❖ Synaptic Transmission Synapses → tiny spaces between neurons  Most lie between axon of one neuron and dendrites or cell body of another Before an impulse can cross synaptic gap it needs to be converted to chemical signal Each axon fiber ends in structure called terminal button Stored in tiny synaptic vesicles are neurotransmitters Neurotransmitters → carry info across synaptic gap to next neuron When nerve impulse reaches terminal button → triggers release of neurotransmitters from synaptic vesicles Neurotransmitters then flood synaptic gap, and some randomly bump into receptor sites on the next neuron Reuptake → after it delivers its message, the neurotransmitter is reabsbored by the axon ❖ Neurochemical Messengers 2 types Excitatory Inhibitory Both! Neurotransmitters fit into receptor sites like lock and key Drugs and venom can also fit into those receptor sites The chemical molecules bind to membrane and either Excite the neuron bringing it closer to firing Inhibit the neuron from firing Acetylcholine (ACh) Stimulates firing of neurons Involved in action of muscles, learning, memory Found in central and peripheral nervous systems Black widow venom causes it to gush out of synapses between spinal cord and skeletal muscles Low ACh → Alzheimers GABA Found throughout CNS In ⅓ of synapses Keeps neurons from firing → controls precision of signal being carried Low GABA → anxiety Glutamate Excites neurons Involved in learning and memory Too much → overstimulate brain and trigger migraines or seizures Norepinephrine Inhibits neurons from firing in CNS Excited heart muscle, intestines, urogenital tract Stress stimulates release Helps control alertness  Too little → depression Too much → manic state Amphetamines increase norepinephrine Dopamine Controls voluntary movement Affects sleep, mood, attention, learning, ability to recognize rewards Personality trait of extraversion Cocaine and amphetamines work a lot by activating dopamine receptors Low level → parkinson Issues with regulation → schizophrenia Serotonin Involved in regulation of sleep, mood, attentioin, learning Teams wtih ACh and norepinephrine to regulate sleep and wake Maintains brains neuroplasticity Low levels → depression Endorphins Natural opiates that stimulate firing of neurons Shield body fro pain and elevate feelings of pleasure Morphine mimics endorphins Oxytocin Hormone and neurotransmitter Plays role in love and social bonding Related to onset lactation and breast feeding “Love at first sight” with newborn Released in orgasm Stimulated by birth and lactation in mothers ❖ Drugs and neurotransmitters Most drugs that influence behavior work thru neurotransmitters Drugs can mimic or increase effects of neurotransmitters or block effect Agonist → drug that mimics or increases neurotransmitter’s effect Antagonist → drug that blocks neurotransmitters effect Structures of the Brain and their Functions How Researchers study the brain and nervous system ❖ Brain lesioning Abnormal disruption in tissue of brain resulting from injury or disease In lab neuroscientists produce lesions in animals to determine effects on animal’s behavior ❖ Electrical recording Electroencephalograph (EEG) → records brains electrical activity Electrodes placed on scalp detect brain-wave activity Device can assess brain damage, epilepsy, etc ❖ Brain imaging  Computer axial tomography (CAT scan) → produces 3D image of x-rays of head assembled into image by a computer Tells location and extent of damage Positron emission tomography (PET) → based on metabolic changes in brain related to activity Measures amount of glucose in areas of brain and sends info to computer for analusis Neurons use glucose for energy → glucose levels vary with levels of activity throughout brain Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) → creates magnetic field around body and uses radio waves to construct images of person’s tissues and biochemical activities Magnetic field is extremely powerful Generates clear pics of brain’s interior Functional Magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) → allows to see what is happening in brain while it’s working Mental activity associated with changes in brain Changes in blood oxygen that occur with brain activity Trascranial magnetic stimulation Combined with brain-imaging techniques to establish casual links between brain activity and behavior, examine neuronal function after brain injury, and treat disorders Uses rapidly changing magnetic field to induce brief electric current pulses in brain Causes virtual lesion How the brain is organized ❖ Three major regions of brain Hindbrain Midbrain forebrain ❖ Hindbrain Located at skulls rear Lowest portion Medulla Begins where spinal cord enters skull Controls breathing and heart rate and regulates reflexes Cerebellum Just above medulla Two rounded structures that play roles in motor coordination Pons Bridge in hindbrain that connects cerebellum and brainstem Involved in sleep and arousal ❖ Brain stem  Includes much of hindbrain (besides cerebellum) and midbrain Embedded deep within brain Connects at lower end with spinal cord and extends upwards to encase the reticular formation ❖ Midbrain Located between hindbrain and forebrain Connect higher and lower portions of brain Relays info between brain eyes and ears Reticular formation Collection of neurons involved in stereotyped patterns of behavior such as walking, sleeping, and turning to attend sudden noise ❖ Forebrain Brain’s largest division Cerebral cortex → outer layer of brain that covers midbrain and hindbrain Outer layer of brain Most complex mental functions Neocortex Outermost part of cerebral cortex Makes up 80% Theory that this is rhe part that thinks Has grooves and bulges Limbic system → a network of structures under cerebral cortex Important for memory and emotion Amygdala Almond-shaped structure inside brain toward the base One on each side Involved in discrimination of objects that are necessary for organism’s survival → food, mates, etc Hippocampus Role in storing memories Determines which part of info passing through cortex should be printed as memory Thalamus → structure that sits on top of brain stem in central core of the brain Essential relay station Sorts info and sends it to where it needs to go Ex. will receive info from cerebellum and project to motor area of cerebral cortex Basal Ganglia → cluster of neurons that sits below cerebral cortex and atop thalamus Work with cerebellum and cerebral cortex to control and coordinate voluntary movements Hypothalamus → small structure just below thalamus Monitors three pleasurable activities Eating  Drinking Sex Also emotion stress and reward Regulates body’s internal state Sensitive to changes in blood and neural input Responds by influencing secretion of hormones and neural outputs ❖ Lobes Two hemispheres and 4 regions (lobes) Occipital lobe Located at the back of the brain Respond to visual stimuli Connections allow for processing of info about aspects of visual stimuli like color shape motion Eyes can only detect and transport info → occipital lobe has to interpret it Temporal lobe Just above ears Hearing, language processing, memory Connected to limbic system Frontal lobe Personality, intelligence, control of voluntary muscles Prefrontal cortex At the front of the motor cortex Planning, reasoning, self control Executive control system Parietal lobes Top and toward rear of head Register spatial location, attention, motor control ❖ Somatosensory cortex and motor cortex Somatosensory cortex Processes info about body sensations Front of parietal lobes Motor cortex Rear of frontal lobes Processes info about voluntary movements ❖ Association cortex Embedded in brain’s lobes 75% of cerebral cortex Regions of cerebral cortex that integrate sensory and motor info Highest intellectual functions occur here Association areas throughout brain Largest portion in frontal lobes Cerebral Hemisphers and Split-Brain Research ❖ The Role of corpus callosum  Large bundle of axons connecting the brain’s 2 hemispheres Communicates between the two hemispheres Right hemisphere receives info from left side of body and vise vers Without corpus callosum, we have two minds Ex: if you pick something up with your left hand but you don’t have a corpus callosum, only your right hemisphere knows you picked that up ❖ Hemispheric differences in functioning Left hemisphere Speech and grammar Syntax rules Singing the words of a song Right hemisphere Nonverbal info → spatial perception, visual recognition, emotion Interprets story meaning and voice intonation Integration of Function in the Brain ❖ All the parts work together The Endocrine System ❖ Set of glands that regulate activities of organs by releasing chemical products into bloodstream ❖ Glands → organs or tissues in body that create chemicals that control bodily functions ❖ Works with the nervous system theu hypothalamus ❖ Slower than nervous system Chemicals going thru blood so slower ❖ Hormones → chemical messengers produced by endocrine glands Membrane of every sell has hormone receptors ❖ Glands: Pituitary gland Pea sized below hypothalamus Controls growth and regulates other glands Front of it is known as master gland bc almost all of its hormones direct activity of glands elsewhere Thyroid parathyroid glands Adrenal glands Top of each kidney Regulate mood, energy level, cope with stress Secretes epinephrine and norepinephrine Act quickly Responds to emergency sitution Pancreas Located under stomach Dual purpose Digestive  Endocrine Produces insulin Endocrine part called islets of Langerhans is a hormone factory Ovaries Located in pelvis on either side of uterus Female sexual characteristics Testes Located in scrotum Male sexual characteristics Brain Damage, Plasticity, and Repair The Brain’s Plasticity and Capacity for Repair ❖ 3 ways brain may repair itself Collateral sprouting → axons of some healthy neurons adjacent to damaged cells grow new branches Substitution of Function → damaged region’s function is taken over by another area or areas of brain Neurogenesis → new neurons are generated Brain Tissue Implants ❖ Brain grafts → implants of healthy tissue into damaged brain Much better when brain tissue is from fetal stage ❖ Stem cells → primitive cells that have the capacity to develop into most types of human cells Might potentially replaces damaged cells in human body including spinal cord and brain Genetics and Behavior Chromosomes, Genes, and DNA ❖ Chromosomes Nucleus of each human cell contains 46 → 23 pairs Threadlike In each pair there is one from each parent Contain DNA ❖ DNA → complex molecule that carries genetic info ❖ Genes → unit of hereditary info Short segments of chromosomes composed of DNA Manufacture proteins that are necessary for maintaining life ❖ Genome → many genes that colab with each other and non genetic factors in and out of body ❖ Cellular machinery mixes matches and links DNA to reproduce genes The Study of Genetics ❖ Dominant-recessive genes principle Dominant gene overrides recessive  Recessive gene only exerts influence if both genes in the pair are recessive ❖ Molecular genetics Manipulation of genes using tech to determine their effect on behavior ❖ Selective breeding Genetic method in which organisms are chosen for reproduction based on how much of a trait they display Genes influence behavior ❖ Genome-wide association method Researchers take all of the info they can from peoples genes and probe for genetic variations linked to diseases Linkage analysis → genes close to noe another in DNA are more likely to be inherited together ❖ Behavior Genetics Degree and nature of heredity’s influence on behavior Less invasive Using twins to see how they differ in behavior Nature vs. Nurture studies Genes and the Environment ❖ Genotype → genetic heritage /genetic material ❖ Phenotype → observable characteristics Physical and psychological ❖ Not always obviously related Chapter 3 How We Sense and Perceive the World The Processes and Purposes of Sensation and Perception ❖ Sensation → the process of receiving stimulus energies from the external environment and transforming those energies into neural energy Physical energy like light, sound, heat, detected bu specialized receptor cells in sense organs WHen receptor cells register stimulus, energy is converted into electrochemical impulse or action potential that relays info about stimulus thru nervous system to brain ❖ Perception → process of organizing and interpreting sensory info so that it makes sense Provides meaning to sensation ❖ Bottom-up and top-down processing Bottom-up Sensory receptors register info about the external environment and sned it to brain for interpretation Taking in info and trying to make sense of it Begins with external world  Top-down Starts with cognitive processing in the brain Begins with some sense of what is happening and applied the farmwork to incoming info ❖ Purposes of Sensation and Perception Adaptation that improves a species survival Sensory Receptors and the Brain ❖ Sensory receptors → specialized cells that detect stimulus info and transmit it to sensory nerves and the brain Openings thru which the brain and nervous system experience the world Frequency of stimulus tells the brain how intense it is bc action potential is always the same ❖ Photoreception → detection of light, perceived as sight ❖ Mechanoreception → detection of pressure, vibration, and movement, perceived as touch, hearing, and equilibrium ❖ Chemoreception → detection of chemical stimuli, perceived as smell or taste ❖ Synaesthesia → experience in which one sense includes an experience of a dif sense Ex: hearing colors ❖ Almost all sensory signals pass thru thalamus Thresholds ❖ Absolute threshold → minimum amount of stimulus energy that a person can detect Below this we cannot detect the stimulus Point in which you detect the stimulus 50% of the time ❖ Noise → irrelevant and competing stimuli ❖ Difference threshold The degree of difference that must exist between two stimuli before the difference is detected Increases as stimulus becomes stronger Weber’s Law → two stimuli must differ by a constant proportion to be perceived as different ❖ Subliminal Perception → The detection of info below the level of conscious awareness Signal detection theory → decision making about stimuli under condition of uncertainty Detection of sensory stimuli depends on a variety of factors beyond intensity of stimulus and sensory abilities → also about fatigue, expectations, urgency Perceiving Sensory Stimuli ❖ Attention Selective attention → focusing on a specific aspect of experience while ignoring others Cocktail party effect → focusing on one voice in a crowded room Attention is shiftable → we monitor many things at once and can shift our focus  Novel stimuli often attract our attention Inattentional blindness → the failure to detect unexpected events when attention is engaged by a task ❖ Perceptual Set Predisposition or readiness to perceive something in a particular way Psychological filters in processing info about the environment Top-down processing Sensory Adaptation ❖ Sensory Adaptation → a change in the responsiveness of the sensory system based on the average level of surrounding stimulation “Adjusting” The Visual System Visual Stimulus and the Eye ❖ Light → form of electromagnetic energy that can be described in terms of wavelengths Light travels thru space in waves Wavelength → distance from peak of one wave to peak of the next Wavelength determines color Visible light = 400-700 nm Outside range of visible light → radio, infrared, UV, X-rays Amplitude → height of wave that determines brightness Purity → whether they are all the same or mix of waves, determines saturation ❖ Structure of the Eye Sclera → white, outer part of the eye that helps maintain shape and protect from injury Iris → colored part, controls size of pupil and regulates how much light gets in Pupil → opening in the center of the iris Cornea → first structure to encounter the world Clear membrane at very front of eye Light hits first Bends light to be able to bring into focus Lens → transparent and somewhat flexible, disk-like structure filled with gelatin like material Light hits after cornea Fine tunes light bending Because it can curve we are able to focus on objects Retina → multilayers, light-sensitive surface that records electromagnetic energy and converts it to neural impulses for processing in brain 126 mil receptor cells Rods → receptors in retina that are sensitive to light Able to work in little light Cones → receptors used for color perception Require a larger amount of light to responds than rods Fovea → tiny area in center of retina at which vision is at its best  Only contains cone Retina converts light into electrochemical impulses → signal transmitted to bipolar cells, → moves to ganglion cells Blidn soit → area in retina where optic nerve leave eye on way to brian Optic nerve Made up of ganglion cells Carries visual info to brain for further processing Visual Processing in the Brain ❖ Optic nerve leaves eye, carrying light to brain ❖ Light travels in straight line, so stimulus in left visual field registerd in right side of retina for both eyes and vice versa ❖ Optic Chiasm → optic nerve fibers divide Half cross over midline of brain Visual info originating in right halves of both retinas transmitted to rite side of occipital lobe Left side of visual field → right brain and vise versa ❖ Visual Cortex → part of cerebral cortex involved in vision Located in occipital lobe Most visual info travels to primary visual cortex and then to other visual areas Deature detectors → neurons in brains visual system that respond to particular features of stimulus Edges, shapes, colors, contours ❖ Parallel Processing → the simultaneous distribution of info across different neural pathways We “see” all characteristics at once ❖ Binding → the bringing together and integration of what is processed by dif neural pathways or cells Color Vision ❖ Trichromatic theory → color perception is produced by 3 types of cone receptors in retina that are particularly sensitive to dif but overlapping ranges of wavelengths Red, blue and green ❖ Color blindness One cone is impaired Red-green colorblindness → green cone isn’t working and looks the same as red ❖ Opponent-process theory → cells in the visual system respond to red-green and blue-yellow colors A given cell may be excited by red and inhibited by green If you stare at red, your red-green system seems to “tire” and when you look away you see green Perceiving Shape, Depth, Motion, and Constancy ❖ Shape  Contour → a location at which a sudden change of brightness occurs Figure-ground relationship → principle by which we organize the perceptual field into stimuli that stand out (figure) and those that are left over (background) Gestalt (configuration) principle Gestalt psychology → school of thought that probes how ppl naturally organize their perceptions according to certain patterns → Whole is different than sum of its parts Closure → when we see disconnected or incomplete figures, we fill in the gaps and see them as whole Proximity → when we see objects near each other, we see them sd s unit Similarity → when we see obecys that are similar we group them ❖ Depth perception → ability to perceive objects three dimensionally Binocular cues → depth cues that depend on combo of images in left and right eyes and the way the eyes work together The disparity between the image the left and right eyes see is how brain determines depth and allows us to see in 3D Convergence → another binocular cue When an object comes closer to us, our eyes converge (move together) This also tells brain how far away or deep something is Monocular cues Familiar size and relative size → we know how large something tends to be, so based on that we can tell how far away the object is based on the size of its image on the retina Linear perspective → objects that are farther away take up less space on retina Overlap → we perceive an object that conceals another as closer Shading → changes in perception due to position of light and position of viewer Texture gradient → texture becomes denser and finer the farther away it is from viewer ❖ Motion perception We have neurons that detect motion Feedback from body tells brain whether we are moving or something else Environment has cues that tell us about movement Apparent movement → when we perceive a stationary object as moving ❖ Perceptual Constancy → recognition that objects are constant and unchanging even tho sensory input about them is changing Size constancy → recognition that an object remains same size even tho the retinal image of the object changes Shape constancy → recognition that an object retains the same shape even tho its orientation around you changes Color constancy → recognition that an object retains same color regardless of how much light is on it The Auditory System The Nature of Sound and How We Experience it ❖ Measured in waves ❖ Wabelength → sound waves frequency ❖ Pitch → perceptual experience of the frequency of the sound High frequency → high pitch and vise versa ❖ Amplitude (dB) is the amount of pressure the sound wave produces relative to a standard 0 dB is the weakest sound human can detect ❖ Loudness → perception of the sound wave’s amplitude ❖ Timbre → tone saturation Structures and Functions of the Ear ❖ Outer ear Pinna Funnel shaped Outer visible part Collects sounds and channels them into interior ❖ Middle Ear Channels and amplifies sound thru: Ear drum Separates outer ear from middle ear and vibrates in response to sound First structure that sound touches in mid ear Hammer, anvil, stirrup → intricately connected chain of very small bones When they vibrate, they transmit sound waves to the fluid-filled inner ear Muscles of middle ear maneuver to control how intense sound is ❖ Inner ear Converts sound waves into neural impulses and sends them on to brain Oval window Connected to stirrup Membrane-covered opening that leads from middle ear to innear ear Transmits sound waves to cochlea Cochlea Tubular Fluid filled Coiled up like a snal Basilar membrane Lines the inner wall of cochlea Runs cochleas length Narrow and rigid at the base of cochlea but widens and becomes more flexible at top Dif sound frequencies stimulate dif parts  Vibrations Lined with hair cells Hair cells → sensory receptors Movement of hair cells against tectorial membrane generates impulses that brain interprets as sound Loud noise can destroy them Cochlear implants designed to replace them Theories of Hearing ❖ Place theory → each frequency produces vibrations at particular place on basilar membrane Only helps to explain high frequency ❖ Frequency theory → perception of sound’s frequency depends on how often the auditory nerve fires Higher frequency causes auditory nerve to fire more often than lower frequency ❖ Volley principle → a cluster of nerve cells can fire neural impulses in rapid succession, producing a volley of impulses Auditory processing in brain ❖ More complex than visual → left ear goes to both hemispheres, but mainly right Localizing sound ❖ Both ears help us localize sound ❖ If something makes noise on your left, your left ear will hear it first and louder than your right Other Senses The Skin Senses ❖ Touch Detected by mechanical energy → pressure against the skin Sensory fibers from receptors in skin enter spinal cord, and from there info travels to brain Info about touch goes to thalamus, which projects the map of body’s surface onto somatosensory areas of parietal lobes in cerebral cortex ❖ Temp Thermoreceptors → sensory nerve endings under skin that respond to temp changes at or near skin and provide input to keep body’s temp at 98.6 Warm thermoreceptors → respond to warming of skin Cold thermoreceptors → respond to cooling of skin Hotness → When warm and cold receptors that are close to each other in skin are stimulated simultaneously ❖ Pain Warns us of damage to body Pain receptors have higher threshold for firing than receptors for temp or touch  Mainly react to physical stimuli that distort them or chemical stimuli that irritate them Prostaglandins → fatty acids that stimulate receptors and cause feeling of pain Two dif neural pathways transmit pain messages to brain Fast pathway → fibers connect directly with thalamus and then to motor and sensory areas Transmits info about sharp, localized pain Slow pathway → pain travels thru limbic system Reminds brain that injury has occured The Chemical Senses ❖ Taste Papillae → bumps on the tongue that contain taste buds (taste receptors) 10,000 buds that are replaced every 2 weeks Sweet, bitter, salty, sour, umami → based on chemical ❖ Smell Olfactory epithelium → lining the roof of nasal cavity Sheet of receptor cells for smell Receptor cells covered with millions of tiny antennae that project thru mucus in top of nasal cavity and make contact with air on its way to throat and lungs ❖ Kinesthetic and Vestibular Senses Kinesthetic sense → provide info about movement, posture, orientation In muscle fibers and joints Vestibular sense → provides info about balance and movement Tells us whether our head is tilted, moving, slowing down, speeding up Works with kinesthetic senses to coordinate proprioreceptive feedback → info about position of our limbs and body parts in relation to others Semicircular canals of inner ear have sensory receptors that detect head motion using fluid Impulses begin in auditory nerve and connect with medulla or go straight to cerebellum Chapter 4 The Nature of Consciousness ❖ Stream on consciousness → a continuous flow of changing sensations, images, thoughts, feelings Defining Consciousness ❖ Consciousness → a person’s awareness of external events and internal sensations under a condition of arousal ❖ Awareness → awareness of the self and thoughts about experience ❖ Arousal → physiological state of being engaged with the environment Consciousness and the Brain ❖ Subjective feeling od awareness occurs in a global brain workspace Prefrontal cortex, anterior cingulate, association areas  ❖ Arousal is regulated by the reticular activating system → network of structures including brain stem, medulla, thalamus Theory of Mind ❖ Theory of mind → the individual’s understanding that they and others think, feel, perceive, have private experiences ❖ Essential for empathy and sympathy ❖ Autism spectrum disorder → deficit in theory of mind Levels of Awareness ❖ 5 levels a. Higher level consciousness Controlled processing in which individuals actively focus their efforts on attaining a goal Most alert Executive function → higher-order, coplex cognitive processing Thinking planning problem solving Focusing on specific thoughts while ignoring others b. Lower level consciousness Automatic processing that requires little attention States of consciousness that require little attention and do not interfere with other ongoing activities Daydreaming c. Altered states of consciousness Can be produced by drugs, trauma fatigue, sensory deprivation d. Subconscious awarenss Can occur when people are awake as well as sleeping and dreaming Waking subconscious awareness: Incubation → the subconscious processing that leads to a solution to a problem after a break from conscious thought about the problem Sleep and Dreams Our awareness is lower than daydreaming When asleep, we remain to some degree aware of outside stimuli e. No awareness Freud’s belief that some unconscious thoughts are too laden with anxiety and other negative emotions for consciousness to admit them Sleep and Dreams ❖ Sleep → a natural state of rest for the body and mind that involved the reversible loss of consciousness Biological Rythms and Sleep ❖ Biological rhythms → periodic physiological fluctuations in the body ❖ We are unaware of most biological rhythms like rise and fall of hormones but they still influence behavior ❖ Circadian Rythms  Daily behavioral or physiological cycles Sleep/wake cycle, body temp, blood pressure, blood sugar level Suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) → small brain structure that uses input from retina to synchronize its own rhythm with the daily cycle of light and dark that monitors that change from day to night Output from SCN allows hypothalamus to regulate daily rhythms of sleep and wakefulness ❖ Desynchronizing the Biological clock Jet lag, changing work shifts, insomnia ❖ Restting the biological clock Use light and dark Why do we need sleep? ❖ Theories on the need for sleep: Sleep protects animals at night (evolutionary) Conserve energy Sleep is restorative Brain plasticity Consolidating memory ❖ Effects of chronic sleep deprivation Decreases brain activity in thalamus, prefrontal cortex, brain’s reward center Stages of Wakefulness and Sleep ❖ Stages correspond to electrophyiological changes that occur throughout brain as we go from wake to sleep ❖ EEG monitor’s electrical activity ❖ Stage W W for wake EEG patterns exhibit alpha and beta waves Beta → reflect concentration and alertness, high frequency low amplitude, do not form a consistent pattern Alpha → slower, higher amplitude, more regular pattern ❖ Stage N1 Sleep Non REM No rapid eye movements Drowsy sleep Myoclonic jerks → sudden muscle movements EEG shows theta waves Slower in frequency and greater in amplitude than alpha waves ❖ Stage N2 Sleep Muscle activity decreases Person is no longer consciously aware of environment Theta waves continue bet have sleep spindles Brief high-frequency bursts of neurons firing simultaneously Important for memory ❖ Stage N3 Sleep  Delta waves → slowest and highest amplitude Deepest sleep ❖ Stage R Sleep REM (rapid eye movement) sleep Most vivid dreams EEG shows fast waves similar to relaxed wakefulness Theta waves Important for memory ❖ Sleep cycling throuh the night Cycles last 90-100 minutes and recur several times during night N3 is greater in first half than second half REM takes place toward end of night and gets progressively longer ❖ Sleep and the Brain 5 sleep stages associated with distinct patterns of neurotransmitter activity initiated in reticular formation 3 important neurotransmitters in sleep Serotonin Norepinephrine Acetylcholine Lowest levels during N3 R is initiated by a rise in acetylcholine → activates cerebral cortex REM ends when serotonin and norepinephrine rise GABA moves us from one stage to the next Sleep Throuhgout the Life Span ❖ Sleep is important for growth from infancy to adolescence ❖ Sleep patterns change as you get older → older people go to bed earlier Sleep and DIsease ❖ Stoke and asthma more common at night ❖ Sleeplessness associated with obesity, diabetes, psychological disorders, heart disease ❖ Infectious diseases make us tired → chemicals produced that help fight make us tired and our bodies conserve energy ❖ Depression → ppl who are depressed often wake up early and can’t go back to sleep and have less delta sleep than others Sleep Disorders ❖ Insomnia Inability to sleep Problem falling asleep, waking up during the night, waking up too early More common among women and older adults and ppl who are thin, stressed, depressed ❖ Sleepwalking and sleep talking Somnambulism → formal term for sleepwalking Occurs in N3 More likely when ppl are sleep deprived or have been drinking  Somniloquy → formal term for sleep talking ❖ Nightmares and Night Terrors Nightmares Peak at age 3-6 Night terrors peak at age 5-7 ❖ Narcolepsy Sudden, overpowering urge to sleep Immediately enter REM Tired during the day ❖ Sleep apnea Stopping to breathe because the windpipe fails to open or because brain processes involved in respiration fail to work properly Wake up throughout the night Loud snoring punctuated by silence more common among men and infants and adults over 65 Can cause high blood pressure stroke heart attack Could be cause of sudden infant death syndrome Dreams ❖ Freud’s interpretation of dreams Manifest content → dream’s surface content Contains dream symbols that disguise the dream’s true meaning Latent content → dream’s hidden content → unconscious, true meaning ❖ Cognitive theory of dreaming Proposes we can understand dreaming by applying the same cognitive concepts we use when studying the waking mind Dreams are subconscious cognitive processing → info processing anf memory Dreams are mental simulation that is similar to everyday waking thoguhts ❖ Activation synthesis theory Dreaming occurs when cerebral cortex synthesizes neural signals generated from activity in lower part of brain Dreams result from brain’s attempt to find logic in random brain activity during sleep As opposed to conscious experience shaped by external stimuli, dreaming is internal stimuli As levels of neurotransmitters rise and fall during stages of sleep some neural networks are activated and others shut down, so there’s random neural firing Dreams are the brain trying to make sense of the ranom firing Psychoactive Drugs Uses of Psychoactive Drugs ❖ Psychoactive Drugs act on the nervous system to Alter consciousness Modify perceptions Cange moods ❖ Tolearance → the need to take increasing amounts of a drug to get the same effect after continued use of psychoactive drugs ❖ Physical dependence → physiological need for a drug that causes unpleasant withdrawal symptoms Physical pain Cravings when discontinued ❖ Psychological dependence → strong desire to repeat the use of a drug for emotional reasons ❖ Addiction → physical or psychological dependence, or both, to drug Increase dopamine levels in the brain’s reward pathways in VTA and NAc ❖ Substance use disorder → psychological disorder where person’s use of psychoactive drug affects health and ability to work and engage in social relationships ❖ Depressants → psychoactive drug that slows mental and physical activities Alcohol Increased concentration of GABA Affects frontal cortex area Alcoholism → long term, repeated, uncontrolled, compulsive, excessive use of alocholic beverages Barbituates Decrease central nervous system activity Ex: nembutal and seconal Makes you feel groggy High dose → impaired memory and decision making Withdrawals → seizures Addictive and easily lethal Tranquilizers Ex: valium and xanax Reduce anxiety and induce relaxation High dose → drowsiness and confusion Tolerance develops within few weeks Addictive Withdrawals when stopped Opioids Act on brain’s endorphin receptors Opium and derivatives Depress activity in central nervous system Pain killers Ex: morphine and heroin Drive up dopamine Addictive Painful withdrawal High risk of feath ❖ Stimulants → psychoactive drugs that increase central nervous system’s activity Caffeine  Caffeinism → caffeine addiction Mood changes, anxiety, sleep disruption Insomnia, irritability, headaches, ringing ears, dry mouth, increased blood pressure, digestive problems Affects brain’s pleasure centers Mild withdrawal symptoms Nicotine Stimulates brain’s reward centers by raising dopamine levels Tolerance develops Withdrawal → irritability, craving, inability to focus, sleep disturbance, increased appetite Highly addictive Amphetamines Diet pills Increased dopamine release Crystal meth Enormous amounts of dopamine released Highly addictive Severe come down Damaged ddopamine receptors → person is chasing a high the brain can’t produce Cocaine Snorted or injected → quickly goes to blood stream Euphoria lasts for 15 to 30 min Depletes brain’s supply of dopamine, serotonin, norepinephrine After effects → depression and agitation MDMA (ecstasy) Hallucinogen Warmth, pleasure, alertness Releases serotonin, dopamine, norepinephrine Depletes brain’s serotonin → bad when the drug wears off Impaurs memory and cognitive processing Destroys axons that release serotonin ❖ Hallucinogens → psychoactive drugs that modify a persons’ perceptial experiences and produce visual images that are not real Marijuana Active ingredient → THC Disrupts membranes of neurons and affects functioning of variety of neurotransmitters and hormones Mild hallucinogen Increased pulse rate and blood pressure, reddening of eyes, dry mouth Can impair attention and memory In large amounts can alter sperm count and hormonal cycles LSD  Objects change shapes and glow Colors turn kaleidoscopic Astonishing and grotesque images Total distortion of time Triggers anxiety, paranoia, suicidal and homicidal impulses Dizziness, naursea, tremors Acts on serotonin Rapid mood swings and impaired attention and memory Hypnosis ❖ An altered stage of consciousness / a psychological state of altered attention and expectation in which individual is unusually receptive to suggestions The Nature of Hypnosis ❖ Alpha and beta waves → relaxed waking state ❖ Widespread areas of cerebral cortex activated ❖ 4 steps Minimze distractions and make person being hypnotized comfortable Tells person to concentrate on something specific like an imagined scene or ticking of watch Informs person what to expect in hypnotic state → relaxation or pleasant floating Suggests certain events or feelings person knows will occur or observed occurring ❖ Individual variations Hypnotizability → extent to which a person’s responses are changed when they are hypnotized Explaining Hypnosis ❖ A divided state of consciousness Consciousness is split between ‘ Part listening to hypnotists commands Hidden observer → conscious part that stays in contact with reality while other does not ❖ Social Cognitive behavior Hypnosis is a normal state where person is acting how a hypnotized person should act Uses of Hypnosis ❖ Hypnosis can be used to treat combined with psychotherapy Meditation ❖ Peaceful state of mind in which thoughts are not occupied by worry ❖ All meditative practices include: Focused attention → bringing one’s awareness to one’s inner life and attending to one’s thoughts Open monitoring → capacity to observe once’s thoughts as they happen without getting preoccupied by them Mindfulness Meditation ❖ Involves focusing on the thoughts or issues, such as pain, rather than avoiding them Lovingkindness Meditation ❖ Developing loving acceptance of oneself and others ❖ Meditator begins by developing warm, accepting feelings towards oneself ❖ Moves to others Medatative State of Mind ❖ Hypnagogic reverie → overwhelming feeling of wellness Chapter 5 Types of Learning ❖ Learning → a systematic, relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs through experience ❖ Behaviorism → theory of learning that focuses on observable behaviors Understanfing behavior requires looking at environmental factors Principles of learning are the same for nonhuman animals and people So can use animals to study learning ❖ Associative learning → occurs when we make a connection or association between two events Conditioning → the process of learning these associations Classical conditioning → organisms learn association between two stimuli and as a result are able to anticipate events Ex: associating thunder and lightning and anticipating thunder after seeing lightning Operant conditioning → organisms learn association between behavior and consequence and as a result learn to increase behaviors followed by rewards and decrease behaviors followed by punishments Ex: kids will repeat having good manners if their parents reward them after they have shown good manners ❖ Observational learning →> when a person observes and imitates another’s behavior Learner has to pay attention, remember, and reproduce the behavior Classical conditioning ❖ Classical conditioning → when a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a meaningful stimulus and acquires the capacity to elicit a similar response Pavlov’s Studies ❖ Reflexes → automatic stimulus-response connections Salivation in response to food, shivering in response to cold, ❖ Unconditioned stimulus (US) → a stimulus that produces a response without prior learning ❖ Uncondtioned response (UR) → an unlearned reaction that is automatically elicited by the US Involuntary In Pavlov’s experiment salivating in response to food was the UR  ❖ Consitioned stimulus (CS) → a previously neutral stimulus that eventually elicits a conditioned response after being paired with the unconditioned stimulus ❖ Coditioned response (CR) → the learned response to the conditioned stimulus that occurs after CS-US pairing ❖ Pavolv started to ring a bell every time before feeding the dog CS → bell ringing CR → salivation ❖ Acquisitiong The initial learning of the connection between the CS and US when the two are paired During acquisition, CS is repeatedly presented followed by US Eventually CS will produce response Contiguity → CS and US are presented very close together in time Contingency → CS must serve as a reliable indicator that US is on its way ❖ Generalization and Discrimination Generalization → the tendency of a new stimulus that is similar to the original conditioned stimulus to elicit a response that is similar to the CR You become scared when you see flashing lights on the highway even though you have never seen that specific police car before Discrimination → process of learning to respond to certain stimuli and not others Pavlov would play other sounds and not give food, then play the bell and give food ❖ Extiniction and Spontaneous Recovery Extinction → the weakening of the CR when the US is absent Without continued association, CS loses ability to produce CR Spontaneous recovery → a conditioned response can recur after a time delay without further conditioning Classical Conditioning in Humans ❖ Explaning Fears We learn many fears through classical conditioning Ex. fear of driving after car crash ❖ Breaking Habits Counterconditioning → classical conditioning procedure for changing relationship between conditioned stimulus and conditioned response Aversive conditioning → treatment that involved repeated pairings of a stimulus with a very unpleasant stimulus Ex. the nail polish that tastes bad for nail biting ❖ Classical conditioning and the placebo effect Placebo effect → effect of a substance or procedure that researchers use as a control to identify actual effects of a treatment Observable changes that cannot be explained by effects of an actuaal treatment ❖ Classical conditioning and the immune and endocrine systems  Immunosuppression → a decrease in the production of antibodies which can lower person;s ability to fight disease Immunosuppression is linked to classical conditioning Ex. patients with Multiple Sclerosis were given flavored drink prior to drug that was supposed to suppress immune system, and eventually the flavored drink itself caused lower immune functioning Similar effects with endocrine system ❖ Taste Aversion Learning Taste aversion → a special kind of classical conditioning involving the learned association between a particular taste and nausea Requires pairing of neutral stimulus (taste) with UR of nausea to seal the connection , and often for a long time Classical conditioning can treat taste aversion Ex. chemo makes you nauseas. Give someone the same kind of sucking candy before each chemo treatment and they will only have taste aversion for that candy ❖ Drug Habituation Habituation → decreased responsiveness to stimulus after repeated presentations Physical appearance of drug or syringe or room that drug is taken in are CS paired with the US of the drug, causing the body to prep for the drug Operant Conditioning Defining Operant Conditioning ❖ Operant conditioning → form of associative learning in which consequences of behavior change the probability of behavior’s occurrence ❖ Operant → term coined by Skinner to describe behavior of organism ❖ Contingency → occurrence of one stimulus can be predicted from presence of another one Thorndike’s Law of Effect ❖ Behaviors followed by satisfying outcomes are strengthened and behaviors followed by frustrating outcomes are weakened Skinner’s Approach to Operant Conditioning ❖ Skinner box → skinner put a rat in a box that had a lever that would release a pellet of food. The rat learned that the consequences of pushing the lever were that it would be fed, so that behavior was strengthened Shaping ❖ Shaping → rewarding successive approximations of a desired behavior ❖ Reward for each step to the desired behavior Ex: teaching a dog to do laundry. First edward for carrying clothes to laundry room. Then for putting them near the washing machine. Then actually in the washing machines Principles of Reinforcement ❖ Reinforcement → the process by which a stimulus or event following particular behavior increases probability that the behavior will happen again ❖ Positive and Negative Reinforcement Positive reinforcement → frequency of a behavior increases because it is followed by presentation of something that increases likelihood of repeated behavior Negative reinforcement → frequency of behavior increases because it is followed by something being removed ❖ Avoidance learning → an organism learns that by making a particular response, the negative stimulus can be avoided altogether Ex. someone always studies hard after getting a bad grade so thet never will again. Even if they never again get a bad grade, the pattern of behavior stays ❖ Learned helplessness → organism, exposed to uncontrollable aversive stimuli learns that it has no control over negative outcomes ❖ Types of Reinforcers Primary reinforcer → innately satisfying. Organism does not need to learn anything for it to be pleasurable Food, water, sexual satisfaction Secondary reinforcer → acquires positive value through organism’s experience, learned or conditioned ❖ Generalizaiton, Discrimination, and Extinction Generalization → performing reinforced behavior in different situation Ex. studying in advance helped me get an A in psych, so I am going to study for bio in advance Discrimination → responding appropriately to stimuli that signal behavior will or will not be reinforced Ex: If I see a student discount sign, I will show the cashier my ID. But if I don’t see the sign, I will not Extinction → when a behavior is no longer reinforced and decreases in frequency ❖ Schedules of reinforcement Continuous reinforcement → when a behavior is reinforced every time it occurs Organisms learn rapidly, but extinction also takes place quickly Partial reinforcement → a reinforcer follows a behavior only a portion of the time Schedules of reinforcement → specific patterns that determine when a behavior will be reinforced Ratio schedules → number of behaviors that must be performed prior to reward Interval schedules → amount of time that must pass before reward Fixed schedule → number of behaviors or amount of time is always the same Fixed ratio schedule → reinforces after set number of behaviors Fixed interval schedule → reinforced the first behavior after a fixed amount of time has passed ◆ As the time gets closer to the exam, you will study harder Variable schedule → required number of behaviors or amount of time that must pass changes and is unpredictable to learner  Variable ratio schedule → behaviors are rewarded an average number of times but on an unpredictable basis ◆ Ex: gambler playing slots has no idea when it will pay off and he will win ◆ More resistant to extincition Variable interval schedule → timetable in which a behavior is reinforced after a variable amount of time has elapsed ◆ Ex: pop quiz ❖ Punishment → a consequence that decreases the likelihood that a behavior will occur Positive punishment → behavior decreases when followed by presentation of stimulus Ex: suicides after being late for practice Negative punishments → behavior decreases when stimulus is removed Time out ❖ Timing and consequences of behavior Delay of gratification → putting off pleasure of immediate reward to gain a more valuable reward later Applied Behavior Analysis ❖ Applied behavior analysis → use of operant conditioning principles to change human behavior Observational Learning ❖ Observational learning AKA imitation or modeling → a person immitates behavior ❖ Processes required Attention → you must attend to what the model is saying or doing Retention → you must remember the info and keep it in memory so that you can retrieve it later Motor reproduction → process of imitating model’s actions Reinforcement Vicarious reinforcement → seeing a model attain a reward for an activity increases chances that an observer will repeat the behavior Vicarious punishment → seeing model punished will make observer less likely to repeat behavior Cognitive Factors in Learning Purposive Behavior ❖ Purposiveness of behavior → the idea that much of behavior is goal-directed ❖ Expectancy learning and info Tolman says that when classical conditioning and operant conditioning occur → organism acquires certain expectations Explains placebo effect → there is an expectation ❖ Latent Learning Reinforced learning that is not immediately reflected in behavior Sometimes called incidental learning → it “just happens” without reinforcement  Ex. “getting a lay of the land” and walking around aimlessly → latent learning for when you’re late to your 8 AM class and have to find it quickly Insight Learning ❖ A form of problem solving in which the organism develops a sudden insight into or understanding of a problem’s solution Biological, Cultural, and Psychological Factors in Learning Biological Constraints ❖ Instinctive Drift → the tendency of animals to revert to instinctive behavior that interferes with learning ❖ Preparedness → species specific biological predisposition to learn in certain ways but not others Ex. an animal in a lab that has never seen a snake can more easily be conditioned to fear snakes than flowers Cultural Influences ❖ Culture determines content and way we learn Psychological constraints ❖ Learning styles → people differ in terms of method of instruction that is most effective for them Visual, aural, kinesthetic Doesn’t actually have evidence, but when people are taught in the way that matches their style, they will feel like they learned more ❖ Mindset Growth mindset → you believe your qualities can change and improve through effort More successful Fixed mindset → you believe your qualities are carved in stone and can’t change Chapter 6 Encoding ❖ Encoding is like a computer’s keyboard → where info is entered ❖ Memories are stored in your brain like a hard drive and can be retrieved later ❖ Paying attention is a big part of encoding, but we can’t pay attention to everything Selective attention → focus on a specific aspect of an experience while ignoring others Sustained attention → the ability to focus on a selected stimulus for a prolonged period of time Divided attention → concentration on more than one activity at the same time Multitasking Less likely to encode info when your attention is divided, so you are more likely to forget it ❖ Types of processing → affects how well info is encoded Shallow processing → you barely remember anything  Intermediate processing → you remember some things, but not much Deep processing → you remember details Elaboration ❖ Formation of a number of different connections around a stimulus at any given level of memory encoding ❖ Creating a huge spider web of links between some new info and everything one already knows Attention ❖ Attention → The limited capacity to process info under conscious control Sustained attention → our ability to maintain focus on a specific stimulus Selective attention → our ability to ignore certain stimuli while directing our attention to other stimuli Multitasking → shifting attention between tasks Executive attention → action planning, allocationg attention to goals, error detection and compensation, monitoring progress on tasks, etc Three Types of Memory ❖ Sensory memory → helps us register sounds, smells, tastes, and touch sensation in world around us When we pay attention to a stimulus, then the info can be moved to next stage of memory Echoic memory and iconic memory ❖ Shot term / working memory → when we actively process an item of info from sensory memory or retrieve stored info from long-term memory ❖ Long term memory → provides storage for info Info stored in long term memory: Episodic memory (life events) Semantic memory Factual knowledge Procedural memory → learned skills Memory Storage ❖ Storage → encompasses how info is retained over time and how it is represented in memory ❖ Sensory memory → time frames of a fraction of a second to several seconds Iconic memory → 0.25 sec Echoic memory → several seconds Short term memory → time frames up to 30 sec ❖ Ex. giving someone a list of numbers and asking them to recite them ❖ Chunking and rehearsal Grouping things into single units to remember so you have fewer things to remember ❖ Rehearsal → conscious repetition of info ❖ Working memory → a combo of components including short term memory and attention that allow us to hold info temporarily as we perform cognitive tasks  Brain manipulates and assembles info to help us understand, make decisions, and solve problems How it works Phonological loop Specialized to briefly store speech-based info about the sounds of language Contains: ◆ Acoustic code → sound we heard ◆ Rehearsal → allows us to repeat the world in phonological store Visuo-spatial sketchpad Stores visual and spatial info like imagery If we put too many things in, we can’t represent them accurately enough to retrieve them successfully Functions independently from phonological loop Central executive Integrates info from phonological loop, visuo-spatial sketchpad, and long term memory Plays important roles in attention, planning, organizing Monitors which info is worth our time Long term memory → Relatively permanent type of memory that stores huge amounts of info for a long time ❖ time frames up to a lifetime ❖ Components: Explicit memory → the conscious recollection of info such as specific facts and avents Ex. Recounting events in a movie Episodic → retention of info about where, when, and what of life’s happenings Autobiographical Semantic→ knowledge about the world Permastore memory → portion of original learning that appears destined to be with the person forever Implicit memory → memory in which behavior is affected by prior experience without a conscious recollection of that experience Procedural memory → memory for skills Ex. remembering how to drive a car Priming → activation of info that people already have in storage to hep them remember new info better and faster When something in the environment evokes a response in memory Classical conditioning ❖ How memories are stored Neurons and memory  Memories = collections of connected neurons working together Neurotransmitters “write” memories Long term potentiation → if two neurons are activated at the same time the connection between them, and thus the memory, will be strengthened Brain structures and memory functions Explicit memory → Hippocampus → retrospective and prospective memory ◆ Episodic and semantic memories temporal lobes → left frontal lobe active when encode new memories. Right when we retrieve it limbic system → amygdala involved in emotional memory Implicit memoru Cerebellum → skills Cerebral cortex → priming Schemas ❖ Mental framework that develops from our experiences Help determine way info is: Interpreted → who what when where why Stored Recalled Ex. if you have had experiences with friendly dogs, you will expect dogs to be friendly → positive schema ❖ If an experience does not fit schema, you will filter it out ❖ Schemas can PRevent you from learning new info Promote prejudice ❖ Script → schema for an event containing physical features, people, typical occurrences ❖ Connectionist networks → anti schemas Connectionism/parallel distributed processing → memory is stored throughout brain in connections among neurons that work together to form single memory Follows what we know about brain function Memories are more like electrical impulses Memory Retrieval ❖ Retrieval takes place when info that was retained in memory comes out of storage Serial Position Effect ❖ Serial position effect → tendency to recall items at beginning and end of list more likely than those in the middle Primary effect → better recall for items at beginning of list Recency effects → better recall for end Retrieval Cues and the Retrieval Task ❖ Recall and recognition Recall → memory task in which person must retrieve previously learned info  Recognition → memory task in which person only has to identify learned items ❖ Encoding specificity Encoding specificity principle → info present at time of encoding or learning tends to be effective as retrieval cue ❖ Context at encoding and retrieval Context dependent memory → better recall in same context in which it was learned Special cases of retrieval ❖ Retrieval of autobiographical memories Autobiographical memory → special form of episodic memory that is a person’s recollections of own life experiences Reminiscence bump → adults remember more events from second and third decades of life than others 3 levels of autobiographical memory Life time periods MOst abstract General events Event specific knowledge ❖ Retrieval of emotional memories Flashbulb memory → memory of emotionally significant events that ppl often recall with more accuracy and vivid imagery than everyday events Not actually so accurate ❖ Memory for traumatic events → retained in great detail ❖ Repressed memories Repression → defense mechanism by which person is so traumatized by event that individual forgets it and then forgets forgetting Motivated forgetting → individuals forget something because it is so painful or anxiety laden that it is intolerable Forgetting Encoding Failure ❖ Encoding failure → info is not entered into long-term memory in the first place You didn’t really forget Retrieval failure ❖ Interference → ppl forget because other info gets in the way of what they want to remember When newly stored info is similar to old info, they get mixed up Proactive interference → when material that was learned earlier disrupts the recall of material learned later Retroactive interference → the opposite ❖ Decay → when we learn something new, if it is not retrieved or rehearsed, the memory will fade ❖ Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon Ability to retrieve characteristics of word but not the word  We don’t store everything about a topic or experience in just one way, so we can recall parts of it but not others ❖ Amnesia → loss of memory Anterograde amnesia → memory disorder that affects retention of new info and events Retrograde amneisa → memory loss for a segment of the past but not for new events