Final Exam - Study Sheet PDF

Define each of the major theoretical approaches. Compare and contrast: How are they the same? How are they different? -​ Psychoanalytic Approach (Sigmund Freud): Believes that human behaviour results from an interaction of conscious and unconscious processes in the mind, behaviour is...

Define each of the major theoretical approaches. Compare and contrast: How are they the same? How are they different? -​ Psychoanalytic Approach (Sigmund Freud): Believes that human behaviour results from an interaction of conscious and unconscious processes in the mind, behaviour is determined by irrational forces and biological drives -​ Neo-psychoanalytic Approach (Karen Horney, Alfred Adler): Acknowledges the importance of early childhood experiences, gives additional focus to social and cultural factors in addition to unconscious and biological factors (expands on the original psychoanalytic ideas) -​ Behavioural Approach (B.F. Skinner): Suggests that human behaviour is shaped (conditioned) and determined by a set of external factors in our enviornment -​ Cognitive Approach (Aaron Beck): Suggets that behaviour is influenced by how one thinks, our personality develops based on how we process (percieve) information about the world and ourselves, our thoughts affect how we feel and in turn how we behave -​ Humanistic Approach (Carl Rogers): Emphasizes the whole person and the uniqueness of each individual through their subjective experience, individuals have free will to choose their own pathways in life which are innately directed towards improvement in self and the world -​ Genetic Approach (McCrae & Costa, Marvin Zuckerman): Characterizes human behaviour according to distinguishable characteristics (traits) and suggests that these traits are largely inherited -​ Social-Learning Appraoch (Julian Rotter): People can learn through observation, internal mental states are an essential part of the process, just because something has been learned does not mean that it will result in a change in behaviour -​ Cognitive-behavioural Approach (Martin Seligman): Emphasizes what is going on in the person's current life rather than what has led up to their difficulties, the focus is primarily on moving forward in time to develop more effective ways of coping with life -​ Lifespan Approach (Erik Erikson): Looks at understanding personality through developmental changes throughout one’s life time  Make yourself a chart for each major theorist (i.e., excluding the mini-theorists and McCrae & Costa). How does each theorist compare on the questions of human nature? Free Will Nature OR Past OR Unique OR Satisfaction OR Optimism OR OR Nurture Present Universal Growth Pessimism Determinsim Sigmund Determinism Nature & Past Uniqueness & Growth Pessimism Freud Nurture Universality Karen Free Will Nurture Past & Uniqueness Growth Optimism Horney Present Alfred Adler Free Will Nurture Past & Uniqueness Growth Optimism Present B.F. Skinner Determinism Nurture Past & Uniqueness Satisfaction & Optimism Present Growth Aaron Beck ? ? ? ? ? ? Carl Rogers Free Will Nurture Past & Uniqueness & Growth Optimism Present Universality Erik Erikson Free Will & Nature & Past & Uniqueness & Growth Optimism Determinism Nurture Present Universality In Skinner’s Reinforcement theory, what do the following terms mean: reinforcement, extinction, operant behaviour, operant conditioning, positive vs. negative, stimulus -​ Reinforcement: Act of strengthening a response or increasing the probability of a response -​ Extinction: The process of eliminating a response or decreasing the probability of a behaviour -​ Operant Behaviour: Behaviour emitted spontaneously or voluntarily that operates on the environment to change it -​ Operant Conditioning: Voluntary behaviour that has been associated with a consequence -​ Positive vs. Negative: Positive = adding something, Negative = taking something away -​ Stimulus: Something in the environment that causes a reaction (unpleasant stimulus/pleasant stimulus) What is the difference between positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, omission and punishment? Can you give examples of each? Describe the four schedules of reinforcement and provide examples of each -​ Positive Reinforcement: Adding a pleasant stimulus to reinforce the behaviour (E.g. giving someone candy when they did something you wanted)  -​ Negative Reinforcement: Taking away an unpleasant stimulus to reinforce the behaviour (E.g. taking away chores when they did something you wanted) -​ Omission (Negative Punishment): Taking away a pleasant stimulus to deter the behaviour (E.g. Taking away your phone when you did something they didn’t want) -​ Punishment (Postive Punishment): Adding an unpleasant stimulus to deter the behaviour (E.g. Giving them more chores when they did something you didn’t want) -​ Fixed Interval: Reinforcer following a fixed amount of time after response (E.g. giving a dog a treat every 30 seconds consistently if they’re walking beside you nicely) -​ Variable Interval: Reinforcer after unpredictable amount of time (E.g. giving a dog a treat at random times if they’re walking beside you nicely, 5 seconds treat, 10 seconds treat, 7 seconds treat, 20 seconds treat etc.) -​ Fixed Ratio: Reinforcer following a fixed number of responses (E.g. every 10 steps give a treat consistently if the dog is walking beside you nicely) -​ Variable Ratio: Reinforcer after an unpredictable number of responses (E.g. giving a dog a treat at random amounts of steps if walking nicely, 10 steps give treat, 7 steps give treat, 20 steps give treat, 3 steps give treat etc.) -​ Interval = time -​ Ratio = number -​ Fixed = consistently -​ Variable = random/inconsistently How has operant conditioning been used to modify behaviour? Discuss examples of applications (e.g., token economy) -​ Behaviour Modification: A psychotherapeutic intervention primarily used to eliminate or reduce maladaptive behavior in children or adults, focuses on changing specific behaviors with little consideration of a person’s thoughts or feelings, certain variables can be manipulated via reinforcers and punishments to change problem behavior(s) -​ Token Economy: A system in which the learner earns tokens by engaging in a targeted behavior - token economies have three major components: 1) a behavior or behaviors that we wish to reinforce, 2) tokens earned for engaging in those behaviors, and 3) exchanging tokens for a choice of reinforcing rewards, this system provides positive reinforcement to increase desired behaviors -​ Punishment: Application of aversive stimulus to decrease behaviour, effective only in short-term -​ Negative Reinforcement: Strengthening response by removal of unpleasant stimulus, consequences not as predictable as positive reinforcement Reflections and criticisms of Skinner -​ Contributions: ​ Skinner was a potent force in psychology, he shaped the field more than perhaps any other individual, his approach continues to be applied in laboratory, clinical, and organizational settings -​ Criticisms: ​ Focuses on overt behaviour, ignores uniquely human qualities ​ Instinctive drift: Substitution of instinctive behaviours for behaviours that had been reinforced ​ Later challenged by cognitive movement Thought Feeling Behaviour Links in CBT. What are they? -​ How one thinks influences how they feel and behave -​ The triggering event starts the flow of thinking of thoughts - feelings - behaviours -​ It doesn’t matter which one you influence first (thought/feeling/behaviour), once one is influenced, the others will be influenced aswell -​ Thought Links: ​ Anger: Something is unfair (‘shoulds’ about others) ​ Anxiety: Threats to personal safety ​ Sadness: Loss ​ Happy: Something good is happening What is the difference between automatic vs. controlled thoughts according to Beck? -​ Automatic Thoughts: ​ Are involuntary and unintentional ​ Often occur at a preconscious level and are difficult to stop or regulate ​ Similar to self monologues that can either support or berate us ​ (E.g. fail a test: automatic thought = “I’m stupid”) ​ A fast automatic unintentional thought -​ Controlled Thoughts: ​ Are voluntary, intentional, conscious, and you are able to regulate them ​ (E.g. fail a test: consciously thinking about what contributed to your mark = “I didn’t study enough, the material was harder, I was a bit distracted this time, ect”) How do Schemas/core beliefs develop? -​ Schemas: cognitive structures that consist of an individual's fundamental core beliefs and assumptions about how the world operates -​ Develops early in life from personal experiences, form concepts of self, others, and the world that shape personality -​ Can be adaptive or maladaptive; general or specific -​ (E.g. “unless others approve of me, I am worthless”) -​ The root of psychological problems are based on distorted thinking patterns (unrealistic schemas) Cognitive distortions: what are they and give examples. -​ We all have them, they are systematic errors in reasoning, unhealthy, or unbalanced thinking, they appear during psychological distress, and stressful events can trigger an unrealistic schema (cognitive distortion) -​ The can develop from early experiences in life, and if your belief systems are not accurate than you are likely to have patterns of thinking that are also not accurate -​ -​ Arbitrary Inference: Conclusion without evidence (jumping to conclusions) -​ Selective Abstraction: Focus on one aspect and ignore everything else (drawing a conclusion from only one aspect) -​ Overgeneralization: Making a “sweeping” generalization (find something that happened and then generalize it to lots of other things) -​ Magnification & Minimization: Too significant or not significant enough (blow things out of proportion, or pretend something isn’t important when it really is) -​ Personalization: Assuming it’s all about you (friend doesn’t text you back and you assume it’s because you did something) -​ Dichotomous Thinking: Thinking in extremes (you NEVER listen to me, you ALWAYS do that, etc.) What is the Cognitive Triad? Sociotropic vs. Autonomous Dimensions of Personality -​ Sociotropic: Dependence on interpersonal relationships and a need for closeness and nurturance -​ Autonomous: Independence and organized around goal-setting, self-determination, and self-imposed obligations -​ Although “pure” cases exist, most people display both features of sociotropy and autonomy / They are not fixed personality structures, but rather modes of behaviour Roger’s self and actualization; organismic valuing process  -​ Self and Actualization: Basic human motivation towards self-maintenance and enhancement, process involves difficult growth -​ Organismic Valuing Process: Process of judging based on value for actualization and growth -​ Our ability to self-actualize will depend on congruence, the more overlap, the more congruent / the more congruent, the greater tendency towards self-actualization What is Rogers congruence vs. incongruence? -​ Congruence: A state in which a person’s ideal self and actual experience are consistent or very similar, it’s rare for a person to have a complete state of congruence and all people experience a certain amount of incongruence -​ Incongruence: Discrepancy between self-concept and experience (Real vs. Ideal Self), incongruent experiences become threatening (feel anxious), use of defense mechanisms (denial and perceptual distortion), psychological adjustment is compatibility between self-concept and experiences Discuss the concepts of conditional vs. unconditional positive regard. What impact do these have on the development of the self? -​ Conditional Positive Regard: Approval and acceptance granted only when a person exhibits desirable behaviours ​ Conditional positive regard leads to conditions of self worth = the belief that we are only worthy of approval for desirable behaviours and attitudes ​ Conditional Acceptance = Conditional Self-Acceptance = Guidance by Conditions of Acceptance (Pathologies and Failure) -​ Unconditional Positive Regard: Approval regardless of one’s behaviour ​ Unconditional positive regard leads to positive self-regard = condition under which we grant ourselves acceptance and approval ​ Unconditional Accpetance = Unconditional Self-Acceptance = Guidance by Self-Actualizing Tendency ​ Positive regard and positive self-regard lead to development of the real self How does someone become a fully functioning person according to Rogers? -​ When someone has developed their real self from having unconditional positive regard and positive self-regard, they develop self-actualization -​ A fully functioning person is guided by self-actualization, they develop all facets of the self, and they get the desired result of psychological development -​ Characteristics of a Fully Functioning Person: ​ Aware of all experience (self insight) ​ Live richly and fully in every moment ​ Trust in own organism (self) ​ Feel free to make choices ​ Are creative and live constructively ​ May face difficulties Roger’s defense mechanisms -​ Denial: “That didn’t happen”  -​ Perceptual Distorions: Changing the meaning of something Roger’s assessment and research concepts -​ Assessments: ​ Person-Centered Therapy: Therapy approach, client is assumed to be responsible for changing, focus on subjective experience ​ Encounter Groups: Group therapy for learning about feelings and relating, others developed tests of experience -​ Research Concepts: ​ Client Self-Report: person-centered therapy, openness to experience, acceptance of self, emotional adjustment ​ First to film therapy sessions for research ​ Q-sort technique: A self-report technique for assessing self-concept Who contributed to the Genetics approach? -​ Gordon Allport (Individual Traits and Common Traits) -​ Raymond Cattell (181 clusters of personality traits reduced to 16 personality factors - 16PF) -​ Hans Eysenck (3 dimensions of personality superfactors) -​ McCrae and Costa (Five-Factor Theory) -​ Marvin Zuckerman (Sensation Seeking) What is factor analysis? -​ A statistical technique based on correlations between several measures, which may be explained in terms of underlying factors How would a “Trait” theorist define a personality trait? -​ Personality traits are: ​ A distinguishing characteristic which describes a relatively stable aspect of an individual ​ They are ‘real’ and observable within people as opposed to ‘constructed’ labels ​ They may be measured on a continuum by observing people over time ​ May determine and cause behaviour ​ Tarits are interrelated ​ Traits are context specific How did each of the trait theorists (we studied in class) categorize traits? -​ Gordon Allport: Individual traits and Common traits ​ Individual Traits: Unique to the individual, defines one’s character -​ Cardinal Traits: Most pervasive and powerful traits -​ Central Traits: Outstanding traits that describe one’s behaviour -​ Secondary Traits: Least important traits, displayed inconspicuously and inconsistently ​ Common Traits: Shared by many people, likely to change overtime (E.g. shared within a culture) -​ Raymond Cattell: 16PF (16 personality factors)  ​ Common traits, unique traits, ability traits, temperament traits, dynamic traits, surface traits, source traits, constitutional traits, environmental-mold traits -​ Hans Eysenck: 3 dimensions of personality superfactors ​ Extraversion vs. Introversion ​ Neuroticism vs. Emotional Stability ​ Psychoticism vs. Impulse Control -​ McCrae and Costa: Big Five Personality Factors ​ Neuroticism, Extraversion, Openness, Aggreeableness, Conscientiousness -​ Marvin Zuckerman: Sensation Seeking Scale (SSS) ​ Thrill/adventure seeking ​ Experience seeking ​ Disinhibition ​ Boredom susceptibility Name and describe the five factors of Costa and McCrae’s Big Five? -​ Openness: Original, independent, creative, daring ​ Low score: Practical, conventional, prefers routine ​ High score: Curious, wide range of interests, independent -​ Conscientiousness: Careful, reliable, hardworking, organized ​ Low score: Impulsive, careless, disorganized ​ High score: Hardworking, dependable, organized -​ Extraversion: Sociable, talkative, fun-loving, affectionate ​ Low score: Quiet, reserved, withdrawn ​ High score: Outgoing, warm, seeks adventure -​ Agreeableness: Good-natured, softhearted, trusting, courteous ​ Low score: Critical, uncooperative, suspiscious ​ High score: Helpful, trusting, empathetic -​ Neuroticism: Worried, insecure, nervous, highly strung ​ Low score: Calm, even-tempered, secure ​ High score: Anxious, unhappy, prone to negative emotions What has research told us about Costa & McCrae’s Big Five? -​ Neuoticism, extraversion, openness, and conscientiousness have a strong hereditary component -​ The factor of agreeableness has a strong enviornmental component -​ All five factors have been found in diverse cultures -​ Most of the factors remain stable to some degree over the lifespan -​ Women report higher levels of neuroticism, extraversion, agreeableness, and conscientiousness than men -​ We tend to see others as being more conscientious and less neurotic than ourselves Role of the Big Five in employment -​ Conscientiousness has the biggest influence on job performance -​ Individuals who score high in conscientiousness have better job performance, inherent leadership ability, are less likely to leave, they put in more effort, have more drive, and are better at discipline and organization  -​ Some issues with learning a complex skill as they will focus more on the outcome than of the learning process -​ Openness: high job satisfaction, easily adaptable, strong leadership skills -​ Extraversion: better job performance, strong leadership skills, are less likely to leave -​ Agreeableness: higher job performance, better on-the-job behaviour -​ Neuroticism: lower job satisfaction, higher stress levels How does Rotter’s Locus of Control compare to Seligman’s concept of Learned Helplessness? -​ Rotter’s Locus of Control: ​ Internal locus of control: I control my destiny -​ Belief that reinforcement is brought about by our own behaviour -​ They think that their behaviour can influence their destiny (E.g. the outcomes of their life has been because of the things they have done) ​ External locus of control: They control my destiny -​ Belief that reinforcement is under the control of other people, fate, or luck -​ Other factors have controlled the outcomes of their life (E.g. I am where I am because of fate, luck, God, or other people and it has nothing to do with me -​ Seligman’s Learned Helplessness: -​ Attribution: how we explain our failures or the things we can’t control -​ Optimistic style: expect good things to happen, prevents learned helplessness ​ Optimistic person says: “I can change it” -​ “There were many factors that affected the situation (externalize) -​ “It’s not always going to be this way. Things will change and get better” (dynamic) -​ “It is only going to affect this one area of my life” (specific) -​ Pessimistic style: expect bad things to happen, spreads helplessness to all facets of life ​ Pessimistic person says: “I can’t change it” -​ “It was all my fault” (personalize, internalize) -​ “It’s always going to be this way; it won’t change” (static) -​ “It’s going to affect all aspects of my life” (global) How does Learned Helplessness explain depression? -​ People who experience depression also believe that they’re helpless -​ When you’re depressed you tend to generalize depression to other aspects of your life -​ Not everyone who has negative experiences just gives up -​ Learned helplessness = depression What has research revealed about differences in people with internal vs external locus of control? -​ Age and gender differences: Men score higher on internal locus of control compared to women, as you age you tend to have more and more internal locus of control but it peaks around middle age -​ Racial and socioeconomic differences: Low classes and minority groups tend to have more of an external locus of control, asian cultures and african cultures tend to be higher on the external side of the scale  -​ Behavioural differences: People who have more of an internal locus of control tend to worry less about failure and more about achievement, they can acquire and process more information and are better able to cope with stress, they have less depressiona and anxiety, and are less likely to commit suicide -​ Physical health differences: People who have an internal locus of control tend to be physically healthier What are the four components of sensation seeking? -​ Thrill/Adventure Seeking: Doing risky things, adrenaline seeking, risk taking -​ Experience Seeking: Open to trying things and doing new things and experiences -​ Disinhibition: Pushing boundaries of what is socially acceptable, doing things that are socially unconventional, aren’t worried about standing up and doing something odd in front of people (E.g. skinny dipping, show dramatic affection in public) -​ Boredom Susceptibility: Individuals who are prone to bordeness easily, don’t like repetition What has research revealed about the characteristics of sensation seekers? -​ Young vs. old: Younger people are more inclined to seek adventure, do reckless thrill seeking things, starts to decrease in your 20s as you get older -​ Men vs. women: Men score higher than women on average on thrill and adventure seeking, women score higher on experience seeking than men, men score higher on disinhibitiona dn boredom susceptibility than women -​ Racial and cultural differences: Asian populations to Western populations they find that asian populations tend to score lower on sensation seeking, whites vs. non-whites - whites score higher on adventure seeking -​ Level of education deos not affect the score What is Seligman’s Explanatory Style? -​ A way of explaining to ourselves our relative lack of control over our environment -​ Optimism/Pessimism How has Seligman contributed to the study of positive psychology? -​ The focus of positive psychology is happiness, excellence, and optimal human functioning -​ Martin Seligman is known as the founder father of positive psychology -​ He opened a new approach to the study of personality -​ He increased research on happiness and other positive emotions and moved away from focusing on the negative aspects that were already in the study of psychology -​ Life Satisfaction: The pleasant life does not contribute to life satisfaction unless the good life and the meaningful life are intact -​ The three happy lives What has research revealed about the three “Happy” lives? -​ The Pleasant Life: A life in which you have as much positive emotion as you possibly can, and the skills to amplify it ​ Having as many of the pleasures as you can  ​ Learning the skills to amplify them ​ Drawbacks: A pleasant life is 50% heritable and not very modifiable, positive emotion habituates rapidly -​ The Good Life (Engagement): A life in your work, your parenting, your love, your leisure; time stops for you ​ Pleasure has raw feelings; you know it’s happening, but during flow you can’t feel anything; your one with the music, time stops ​ Identfying signature strengths ​ Recraft your life to use these skills as much as you can ​ Derive thereby more flow -​ The Meaningful Life: ​ Knowing what your highest strengths are ​ Use these strengths in the service of something larger than you ​ Positive institutions Name Erikson’s eight Psychosocial Stages of Personality Development -​ Oral Stage, Anal Stage, Genital Stage, Latency Stage, Adolescence, Young Adult, Adult, and Older Adult Describe how Erikson’s stages are governed (i.e., how one moves through a stage and describe the important events within the stage). What are the basic strengths associated with each stage? -​ Trust vs. Mistrust ​ Birth - 1 year (Oral Stage) ​ Based on interaction with mother, to what degree do your oral needs get met determines how well you resolve the crisis, if the mother is able to meet the baby’s need then the baby gains trust ​ Trust: consistency & continuity ​ Mistrust: inconsistency, suspicion, fear ​ Basic Strengths: Hope (belief that desires will be satisfied) -​ Autonomy vs. Shame ​ 2 - 3 years (Anal Stage) ​ Developing some physical and mental abilities, start to develop a tiny bit of independence, do your parents nurture that or do they limit you, how do they navigate toilet training, do they punish you or do they nurture your growth ​ Autonomy: exercising independence ​ Shame: self-doubt & sense of shame ​ Basic Stregth: Will (Determination to exercise freedom) -​ Initiative vs. Guilt ​ 3 - 5 years (Genital Stage) ​ Ability to accomplish, first time your exercising your power or taking initiative on your own ​ Initiative: initiates activities & fantasies; knows permissible behaviours  ​ Guilt: punishment of initiative; guilt feelings about self-direction ​ Basic Strength: Purpose (Courage to envision & pursue goals) -​ Industriousness vs. Inferiority ​ 5 - 11 years (Latency Stage) ​ School & social experiences, am I good?, am I enough?, primary social relationships shift from parents to teachers ​ Industriousness: praise & reinforcement ​ Inferiority: scolding, ridicule; feelings of inadequacy ​ Basic Strength: Competence (Exerting skill & intelligence tasks) -​ Identity Cohesion vs. Role Confusion ​ 12 - 18 years (Adolescence) ​ Teenagers try on different looks, who am I?, what does it mean to be me? ​ Identity Cohesion: Ego Identity (consistent & congruent self-image) ​ Role Confusion: Identity Crisis (confusion of belonging, purpose, direction ​ Basic Strength: Fidelity (Sincerity, genuineness, & sense of duty) -​ Intimacy vs. Isolation ​ 19 - 35 years (Young Adult) ​ Functioning as mature, responsible adult, start to have your first real and committed relationships ​ Intimacy: establishment of caring & committed relationships ​ Isolation: avoidance of social contacts; rejection of others ​ Basic Strength: Love (Mutual devotion in a shared identity) -​ Generativity vs. Stagnation ​ 35 - 55 years (Adult) ​ Concern for future generations & society ​ Generativity: teaching, mentoring, guiding the next generation ​ Stagnation: boredom, pseudo-intimacy, self-absorption & childlike behaviours ​ Basic Strength: Care (Broad concern for others; need to teach) -​ Ego Integrity vs. Despair ​ 55 years - end of life (Older Adult) ​ Examination of one’s life ​ Ego Integrity: sense of fulfillment & satisfaction; self-acceptance ​ Despair: regret, anger, frustration ​ Basic Strength: Wisdom (Detached concern for whole of life) Do you know the following Erikson terminology? (Epigenetic, crisis, maladaptive, adaptive, maldevelopment, malignant) -​ Epigenetic Principle: You are born with this innate drive or motivation to move through a series of governed stages in your life, you approach each stage and deal with a crisis, how you navigate these stages depends on your social relationships -​ Crisis: A turning point at each developmental stage -​ Maladaptive: Gets associated with neurosis, too much on the “positive side” (E.g. too trusting, too much intimacy etc.) -​ Adaptive: You are able to adapt to your surroundings to function optimily, if you have a good amount of both sides then you are adaptive, you need some amount of both sides in each stage to be able to gain that basic strength -​ Maldevelopment: When the ego consists solely of a single way of coping with conflict -​ Malignant: Gets associated with psychosis, too much on the “negative side” (E.g. too mistrusting, too isolated etc.)