Introduction to Psychology

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Questions and Answers

What is a hypothesis in scientific research?

A proven fact derived from research

An untestable conjecture about observations

A broad idea that explains everything about a phenomenon

A testable prediction stemming from a theory (correct)

Which step involves systematic observation techniques?

Evaluating conclusions

Testing through empirical research

Descriptive research (correct)

Formulating hypotheses

What does replication in scientific research validate?

The theory that generated the initial hypothesis

The reliability of the results obtained (correct)

The original hypothesis proposed

The method of observation used

What is the purpose of an operational definition in research?

To describe how variables are measured and observed Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a component of descriptive research?

Data analysis through hypothesis testing Signup and view all the answers

Which principle of ethical research involves informing participants about the purpose and methods of a study?

Informed consent Signup and view all the answers

What characteristic of the nervous system describes the ability to rewire itself based on experiences?

Plasticity Signup and view all the answers

What term describes the nerves that carry information from the senses to the brain?

Afferent nerves Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following processes is NOT involved in the functioning of the nervous system?

Chemical digestion Signup and view all the answers

Which aspect of the nervous system allows it to coordinate various activities simultaneously?

Complexity Signup and view all the answers

What is the main idea behind drug habituation?

It results in decreased responsiveness to a stimulus after repeated exposure. Signup and view all the answers

What does operant conditioning primarily involve?

Learning based on the consequences of behavior. Signup and view all the answers

According to Thorndike's Law of Effect, what happens to behaviors followed by satisfying outcomes?

They are strengthened. Signup and view all the answers

In Skinner's experiment, what behavior did the rat learn to perform?

Pulling a lever to receive food. Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of shaping in operant conditioning?

To encourage successive approximations of a desired behavior. Signup and view all the answers

Which statement accurately describes positive reinforcement?

It increases behavior by presenting a desirable stimulus after the behavior. Signup and view all the answers

What best defines avoidance learning?

Learning to engage in a behavior to escape an unpleasant outcome. Signup and view all the answers

What role does reinforcement play in operant conditioning?

It increases the likelihood of a behavior's recurrence. Signup and view all the answers

What effect does GABA have on neuron activity?

It inhibits neuron firing for precision control. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of acetylcholine (ACh)?

Excites neurons and stimulates muscle action. Signup and view all the answers

How does excessive glutamate affect the brain?

Can lead to overstimulation, causing migraines or seizures. Signup and view all the answers

In what way does norepinephrine affect the body during stress?

Stimulates heart muscle and can lead to alertness. Signup and view all the answers

Which neurotransmitter is linked to pleasure and pain relief?

Endorphins Signup and view all the answers

How do agonists affect neurotransmitter activity?

They mimic or enhance the effects of neurotransmitters. Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of the thalamus in the brain?

Acts as a relay station for sensory information. Signup and view all the answers

Which region of the brain is responsible for motor coordination?

Cerebellum Signup and view all the answers

What type of brain imaging uses glucose metabolism to assess brain activity?

PET scan Signup and view all the answers

Which neurotransmitter is particularly associated with mood regulation and sleep?

Serotonin Signup and view all the answers

What role does the hindbrain play in bodily functions?

Regulates reflexes and autonomic functions. Signup and view all the answers

Which structure in the brain is primarily involved in emotional response and memory?

Limbic system Signup and view all the answers

Which part of the brain is responsible for higher cognitive functions, including thinking?

Cerebral cortex Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements is true regarding brain lesioning in research?

It is used to determine behavioral effects of brain injuries. Signup and view all the answers

Which structure is primarily responsible for regulating the body's internal state and responding to blood changes?

Hypothalamus Signup and view all the answers

What is the main function of the occipital lobe?

Interpreting visual stimuli Signup and view all the answers

Which hemisphere of the brain is primarily associated with speech and language processing?

Left Hemisphere Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of the corpus callosum?

Connects the two hemispheres of the brain Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following hormones is secreted by the adrenal glands during stress?

Epinephrine Signup and view all the answers

What is a characteristic of collateral sprouting in the brain?

Healthy axons growing new branches Signup and view all the answers

What part of the brain processes information about voluntary movements?

Motor cortex Signup and view all the answers

What type of genetic principle suggests that a dominant gene will override a recessive gene?

Dominant-recessive genes principle Signup and view all the answers

Which gland is known as the 'master gland' due to its regulatory effects on other glands?

Pituitary gland Signup and view all the answers

Which lobe of the brain is involved primarily in personality and reasoning?

Frontal lobe Signup and view all the answers

What process involves taking over the function of a damaged brain region by another area?

Substitution of function Signup and view all the answers

What does neurogenesis refer to?

Creation of new neurons from stem cells Signup and view all the answers

What role does the somatosensory cortex serve?

Processing sensory information Signup and view all the answers

Which type of research method looks at the influence of genes on behavior using twins?

Behavior genetics Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)?

To synchronize the biological clock with light and dark cycles Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following neurotransmitters plays a key role in the transition to REM sleep?

Acetylcholine Signup and view all the answers

What defines insomnia?

Difficulty staying asleep or waking up too early Signup and view all the answers

Which sleep stage is characterized as the deepest sleep, with the presence of delta waves?

Stage N3 Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary effect of chronic sleep deprivation on the brain?

Decreased brain activity in critical areas Signup and view all the answers

What physiological change occurs in the body during the REM stage of sleep?

Heart rate and breathing become irregular Signup and view all the answers

Which theory suggests that dreams arise from the brain trying to make sense of random neural firing?

Activation synthesis theory Signup and view all the answers

What is a key characteristic of psychoactive drugs known as depressants?

They slow down central nervous system activity Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a feature of classical conditioning?

Reinforcement Signup and view all the answers

What term describes the phenomenon when a previously conditioned response is manifested after a delay without further conditioning?

Spontaneous recovery Signup and view all the answers

What does tolerance in the context of psychoactive drugs refer to?

The need for increased amounts of a drug to achieve the same effect Signup and view all the answers

Which type of learning involves making an association between a behavior and its consequences?

Operant conditioning Signup and view all the answers

Which meditation practice focuses on the acceptance of oneself and others?

Lovingkindness meditation Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Defining Psychology

Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes
Psychology uses systematic methods to observe human behavior and draw conclusions
Goals of psychology: Describe, predict, and explain behavior
Behavior: observable actions
Mental processes: thoughts, feelings, and motives

The Psychological Frame of Mind

Four attitudes to scientific approach to psychology:
- Critical thinking: process of thinking deeply, asking questions, and evaluating evidence
- Curiosity: questioning and testing ideas
- Skepticism: questioning claims and evidence
- Objectivity: basing conclusions on empirical data and not opinions

Psychology as the Science of All Human Behavior

Psychology explores factors influencing behavior, including unconscious drives and impulses
Views all facets of people in psychological studies

Psychology in Historical Perspective

Psychology has roots in philosophy and the natural sciences (biology and physiology)
Wilhelm Wundt is considered the father of academic psychology

Structuralism

Developed by Wundt and collaborators
Focuses on identifying the elemental parts/structures of the human mind
Uses introspection (looking inward)

Functionalism

Developed by William James
Focuses on the functions or purposes of the mind and behavior in adapting to the environment
Assesses the adaptive purpose of human thinking and behavior

Contemporary Approaches to Psychology

Biological approach: Focus on the body (brain and nervous system), genetics and biochemistry to understand behavior, thought, and emotions
Behavioral approach: Focus on observable behaviors and environmental influences
Psychodynamic approach: Focus on unconscious thought, early childhood experiences, and the conflict between biological drives
Humanistic approach: Focuses on positive human qualities, capacity for growth, and freedom to choose one's destiny
Cognitive approach: Focus on processes involved in knowing (such as attention, perception, memory, thinking, and solving problems)

Psychology's Scientific Method

Observing phenomenon
Formulating hypotheses and predictions
Testing through empirical research (operational definition, data analysis)
Drawing conclusions
Evaluating conclusions (replication of studies, reliability of results)

Types of Psychological Research

Descriptive research: describes phenomenon, but doesn't explore cause
Correlational research: examines relationship between variables
Experimental research: establishes cause-and-effect relationships

Research Samples and Settings

Research samples attempt to reflect populations
Settings can be laboratory or natural (realistic)

The Nervous System

The body's electrochemical communication system
Characteristics: complexity, extensive assemblies of nerve cells, integration
Divisions: Central Nervous System (CNS), and Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
Pathways: afferent(sensory) and efferent(motor)
Divisions of PNS: somatic and autonomic nervous systems (sympathetic and parasympathetic)
Neurons are the basic units of the nervous system
Neurons are specialized cells that transmit information
Different types of neurons relay info to various parts of the body, brain & nervous system

The Brain

Three major brain regions: hindbrain (controls basic life functions), midbrain (connects hindbrain & forebrain) , and forebrain (controls complex functions)
Lobes(specific regions): occipital (visual), temporal (auditory), frontal (movement, planning, problem solving), parietal (touch, sensory)
Hemispheres: left & right
Corpus callosum connects the two brain hemispheres to communicate between them and processes information

Endocrine System

Chemical messengers called hormones that control bodily functions, regulating activities & responses in organs or tissue.
Works with the nervous system through the hypothalamus & endocrine glands for chemical messengers

Brain Damage, Plasticity, and Repair

Brain has capacity for repair in 3 manners (collateral sprouting, substitution of function & neurogenesis)
Brain grafts and stem cells (potential) for treatment of disorders
Methods of studying the brain include: lesioning, electrical recording (EEG), brain imaging (MRI, CT and fMRI)

Genes and the Environment

Genotype: genetic heritage/material
Phenotype: observable characteristics
Not always obviously related
Behavior genetics studies genes' and environment influence on behavior
Nature vs Nurture

How We Sense & Perceive the World

Sensation: receiving stimulus energies, transforming those energies into neural energy
Perception: organizing and interpreting sensory info
Bottom-up & top down processing
Processes of Sensation depend on sensory receptors in sense organs. Sensory receptors register stimuli and it is transformed into neural energy
Perception transforms into meaningful experiences like shape, depth & motion

The Visual System

Light → waves of energy
Visual stimuli → wavelength & amplitude, purity
Physical structures of the eye: cornea, pupil, lens, retina (including rods & cones)

The Auditory System

Sound waves → frequency, amplitude , timbre, and how it is measured
Physical structures of the ear: pinna, ear drum, hammer, anvil, stirrup, oval window, cochlea, and basilar membrane
Different sound frequencies stimulate different parts of the cochlea and cause sensory experience for us

The Skin Senses

Mechanical energy: pressure against the skin
Sensory fibers from receptors in skin
The brain processes info about touch & temperature via somatosensory areas

Taste & Smell

Papillae → bumps on tongue with taste buds
Olfactory epithelium → lining of nasal cavity with receptor cells for smell
Receptors detect chemical substances in food&air that determine taste or smell

Kinesthetic & Vestibular Senses

Kinesthetic senses provide info about body movement, posture & orientation
Vestibular senses provide info about balance & movement based on sensory receptors in inner ear

The Nature of Consciousness

Consciousness is a person's awareness of external events and internal sensations under a condition of arousal.
Consciousness differs in levels of awareness including higher level conscious, lower level conscious & altered states.
Levels and states of consciousness involve physiological changes like brain activity, subjective feelings of awareness occur in a global brain workspace.

Biological Rhythms & Sleep

Circadian rhythms → periodic fluctuations in the body (e.g., sleep-wake cycle)
Stages of sleep/wakefulness are based on EEG patterns, including N1, N2, N3, REM stages.
Sleep disruptions can cause disorders/ diseases.

Theories & Uses of Hypnosis

Hypnosis: altered state of consciousness with increased suggestibility
Theories explain it as social or psychological factors, but not a unique state of consciousness. A method in which mental state is directed to focus on thoughts/ feelings/ sensory experiences

Types of Learning

Learning: systematic change in behavior due to experience
Conditioning (classical & operant): organism learns associations between events
Types of conditioning: classical conditioning(associates 2 stimuli), and operant conditioning (associates behavior & consequence)

Observational Learning

Observational learning occurs when a person observes and imitates another's behavior
There are four steps required: attention, retention, motor reproduction & reinforcement

How Memories are Formated & Stored

Encoding (putting info into memory by changing it into neural code), Storage (maintain info in memory system), Retrieval(getting info back out of memory)
Memories are collections of connected neurons working together
Long-term potentiation involves strengthening connections between neurons during repeated activations
Structures of the brain involved in various types of memories.

Special Cases in Memory

Encoding specificity principle, context-dependent memory, state-dependent memory, and autobiographical memory are discussed in detail
Different types of memory failure are explored, including encoding failure, retrieval failure, interference, and motivated forgetting

Memory Disorders

Amnesia is an inability to recall specific info from past due to specific brain injury or trauma
There are different types of amnesia (anterograde amnesia, retrograde amnesia)

Applied Behavior Analysis

Applied behavior analysis uses operant conditoning to modify behavior
Principles: reinforcement & punishment to strengthen or decrease behaviors. Reinforcement increases, punishment decreases behavior

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Description

This quiz explores key concepts in psychology, including the scientific study of behavior and mental processes. It covers essential attitudes for a scientific approach, historical roots, and the factors influencing human behavior. Test your knowledge and understanding of these fundamental ideas in psychology.