Psychology Lecture Notes: Anxiety, Mood, and Stress PDF

**PSYCH 1024** **ANXIETY, MOOD AND STRESS** Lecture 1: **[SCIENCE:]** **Psychology:** Evidence-based interventions with solid foundation of research behind them Wide range of settings such as: community centres, private practice, prisons, hospitals and not-for-profit organisations. AHPRA Regis...

**PSYCH 1024** **ANXIETY, MOOD AND STRESS** Lecture 1: **[SCIENCE:]** **Psychology:** Evidence-based interventions with solid foundation of research behind them Wide range of settings such as: community centres, private practice, prisons, hospitals and not-for-profit organisations. AHPRA Registration: protects customers, enforces a certain standard of competency among practitioners and binds practitioners to a code of ethics. Psychological scientists are researchers who apply science to the study of psychology, more broadly, from the study of the brain, behaviour, cognition, emotions, physiology or social interactions. **Psychiatrist:** involves medical training, can prescribe medicine **Social Workers**: Help people manage difficulties but they tend to work more systematically than Psychologists, with systems and structures like connecting client to community resources. Provides broadly support that includes assistance with health care, housing, employment, advocate for social justice. Focus on social/community services and social aspects of mental health. Does not need AHPRA regio. **Counsellor**: Needs a masters, studied counselling techniques and theories but not as extensive as psychologists. Focus on guidance and support for the problem, works in schools, community centrers or private practice. Their approach is more solution-focuses, less broad. **Psychotherapists**: Professionals from various backgrounds who provide therapy for emotional and psychological issues. **Psychologists**: Studies behaviour and mental processes. Aim to help individuals lead a more fulfilling lives by addressing psychological issues, improving mental well-being and fostering personal growth. Does psychological assessment, diagnosis, therapy, uses therapeutic approaches and evidence-based therapy. Conducts research as well. **Scientist**: Person who systematically investigates the natural world through observation, experimentation, and analysis to understand how it works. They develop theories, generate knowledge, solve problems using the scientific method. The scientific method does not and cannot prove anything to the point of absolute certainty. **"Scientifically proven**": It's a problematic saying as implies a level of certainty that science does not typically provide. **Scientific progress**: incorrect ideas get disproven so only the most accurate ideas survive. Scientists observes an event, puts forwards and idea that explains how and why the phenomenon occurs and that equals a theory. Then the scientific community focus on that theory and tries to disprove it by finding evidence. Theory gets revised, if there is no evidence that is wrong then we are pretty confident that we are in the right track. **Scientific method components**: observation, question, hypothesis, experiment, analysis, conclusion, report/communication, re-evaluation/revision. -Unfalsifiable: means that it cannot be proven false by any conceivable evidence or observation -Theories also makes predictions for the future **How scientists run a scientific experiment:** 1. Researcher looks at all predictions that those existing theories make 2. Identify a prediction that has NOT been made= called research gap 3. He expresses the prediction as a hypothesis (very specific prediction about what do you think is going to happen just in your particular experiment) 4. Run the experiment and collect data 5. Operationalizing a variable is defining it in such way that it can be measured, observed and tested. Gives a translation from abstract into concrete, measurable terms. 6. Design and conduct experiment that will answer you question 7. Use control condition which ensures that all participants experience the same conditions except for the specific variable that we are interested in. 8. Independent variable: variable controlled/manipulated by the researcher to observe its effects on another variable 9. Dependent variable: The one you measure to see the effect on the independent variable 10. Check results: you would see if the observations supported or refuted our hypothesis **Hypothesis must be:** Replicable, observable, objective and actually measure the factor that you set out to measure (VALIDITY), a statement and not a question. **Science** is a circular process, it's always continuing, ongoing because lots of questions will come up, it's an incremental process as involves making gradual improvements or additions over time. So we are constantly updating our understanding of the world It is an Iterative process: involves repeating cycles of development or experimentations where each cycle involves a version of the product or solution that is evaluated and refined based on the results and feedback. **[THEORY VS HYPOTHESIS:]** **Hypothesis**: are specific, testable predictions or statements about relationship between variables, used as basis for experiment. So, Single idea to test. **Theories**: are comprehensive, well supported explanations of broader phenomena, build from a larger body of evidence and multiple tested hypotheses. So, Big picture explanation supported by lots of evidence. **[EMOTION:]** Emotion is a complex psychological and physiological state that involves a range of responses to internal and external stimuli. -Emotions are shorter in duration than moods -Tend to have an "aboutness". It occurs in response to some sort of stimulus or cue -They are more specific than moods -**Moods**: can last longer, don't have aboutness, might just wake up feeling like this, no specific stimulus, more vague and hard to pinpoint. Valence: Good versus Bad, the positiveness or negativeness. **6 UNIVERSAL EMOTIONS**/Primary emotions: joy, sadness, angry, disgust, surprise and fear. **Secondary emotions**: Embarrassment, guilt, resentment and apprehension. There is also culture specific emotion: saudade **Components of emotion:** Things that you are aware of amidst all things, contextual cues, smells, the environment around you, all things you are consciously aware of. **MOODS:** Are prolonged emotional states, less specific, less intense than emotions, not relation to specific event often. -More generalised and lasts longer -Influence overall outlook and can affect how we interpret and react to various situations -Example: good, bad mood, feeling melancholic, experiencing euphoria **AFFECT:** Observable expression of emotions and moods can be seen in your facial expressions, body language, and tone of voice. -It's the immediate, external manifestation of internal emotional state -It provides a way for others to perceive how we feel. **Affect**: broad umbrella term that can be used to refer to clusters of experiences, including mood, emotions and feelings, as well as the valence of these things. **ABOUTNESS:** In cognitive science, "Aboutness" concerns how mental representation or thoughts can be directed towards objects, events, or states of affairs in the world. **Specific vs Diffuse emotions:** **Specific**: specific emotions are directed towards particular events, objects, or situation -They arise in response to specific stimuli Ex: Happiness, fear, anger... **Diffuse**: often referred to as MOODS, are more generalised, less tied to specific causes, less intense and lasts longer. **[CLASSIFYING EMOTIONS:]** It is important to consider all components before classifying. -Identify discrete emotions that are distinct and separate from one another. Since most emotions overlap in "Symptoms" we should focus on behaviours like facial expression or physiological changes. **We can focus on**: physiological responses, cognition, neural processing such as memory of past experiences, facial expression, body language and self reflection. -Emotions like anger and fear have different clusters of thoughts, behaviours and physiological responses. **Differences**: Facial expressions, duration, intensity, cognitive and emotional responses. **Similarities**: physiological responses, behavioural responses as aggressive behaviour, confrontation, avoidance, fleeing... \- 6 Universal emotions are fundamentally distinct from one another -**Discrete** approach to emotions: refer to specific, distinct emotional states that are characterised by unique patters of physiological states, subjective experiences, and behavioural expressions. Like the 6 universal ones. So we categorise emotions into distinct, fundamental types, each with unique characteristics and physiological response. **Dimensional Accounts of emotions:** Says that emotions are not entirely distinct categories but exists along dimensions. -These models emphasize the complexity and overlap among emotions **Circumplex model by James Russel** **Valence**: emotions can be positive(PV) (pleasant) or negative (NV) (unpleasant). It's the attractiveness or aversiveness of an emotion **Arousal:** level of physiological activation associated with the emotion/ the intensity: High arousal: ex excitement, anger Low arousal: ex: calmness, sadness HA/NV: Tense, angry, guilt, frustrated LA/NV: Depressed, bored, tired HA/PV: excited, delighted, happy LA/PV: content, relaxed, calm **Approach/Avoid motivational System:** Psychological framework that explains how people are motivated by the desired to achieve positive outcomes (approach) or negative outcomes (avoidance). Motivational intensity of emotion is what drives if we are focusing in the big picture or on the fine detail. This phenomenon is affected by our emotions. So, the intensity to which the emotion compels us to approach or avoid the stimulus. **-Principle of Parsimony:** used as guide the development and evaluation of theories and explanations about human behaviour, mental processes, and psychological phenomena. It emphasizes that among competing theories or explanations we should choose the one with fewest assumptions, greatest simplicity should be preferred, provided it adequately explains the phenomena. Exception: if 2 theories for example have some utility in different situations. **Dimensional accounts** feel that they are more accurate than discrete approach/accounts: because they argue that their model provides a more accurate and comprehensive understanding of emotions. Such as complex and overlapping emotions, variability and context and flexibility in measurement. **-Both types help us**: they offer valuable insights into how we understand and categorise emotional experiences, each has its strengths and can complement each other. Discrete shows us that the 6 universal emotions are recognised across cultures. Dimensional: reflects the variability and complexity of emotional experiences. **[The theories of Emotion:]** Scientific theories that are detailed accounts of why and how this phenomena occurs -Some emphasizes more behaviour of emotions, some the role of cognitions and others role of our body responses. **1) FUNCTIONAL/EVOLUTIONARY THEORIES:** Says that the purpose of emotions is to help us quickly and effectively deal with problem and take advantage of opportunities in the environment. The changes helps us to respond to the situation maximising our changes or surviving and thriving= reacting in an adaptive way -An important part of our emotions is: cognitions and thoughts Purpose of cognitions: interrupt previous thoughts and behaviours to deal with the threat that has appeared, shifting thoughts for the situation ensuring attention, judgment, memory is towards the threat/stimulus. -Main purpose of this theory: emotion serves an adaptive role **2) MOTIVATIONAL THEORIES:** Says motivational intensity plays a big role in driving evolutionary outcomes. The strength or intensity of motivation influences how effectively individuals pursue and achieve goals that are critical for survival and reproduction. -Emotions motivate behaviours and actions which are essential for achieving goals, the intensity affects how we pursue or avoid those. Rocks: you don't approach or avoid= so LOW motivational intensity, you see the big picture Chocolate: you approach: HIGH motivational intensity, narrow cognitive scope = focus on details Sadness: Negative emotion, LOW motivational avoidance, big picture Poo: high level of avoidance, narrow cognitive scope= see more details -So, the factor that determines which level of the perceptual hierarchy we focus on really seems to be the intensity of the emotion not the valence or motivational direction. -Low motivational emotions like sadness or satisfaction might be best served by stepping back and looking at the bigger picture -High motivational emotions might make our goals more attainable, narrowing and focusing on a target, less likely to have distractions that get in the way of our goal. This is regardless of if you want to avoid or approach. **3) Cognitive Appraisal Theories:** Emphasized the role that cognitions play in emotions -Emotions and cognitions are distinct but related categories -Cognitive appraisal: our evaluation of something -In this theory, cognitive appraisal for a situation can cause our emotions and also be caused by our emotions **Appraisal Theories** of emotion propose that our emotional responses are determined by how we interpret or \"appraise\" events and situations. These theories focus on the cognitive processes involved in evaluating a stimulus and how this evaluation shapes our emotional experience. Casual Appraisal theory: focuses on how we interpret and assign **causes** to events, and how these interpretations influence our emotional responses. Cognitive: Individuals evaluate events based on their significance to personal goals, values, or well-being. Different appraisals lead to different emotions. **Sequential Process**: **Primary Appraisal**: Is this relevant to me? Is it positive, negative, or neutral? **Secondary Appraisal**: Can I cope with this event? What resources do I have to handle it? Emotion: Anger arises when someone appraises an event as unfair and blames someone else. Fear when appraises an event as a threat and perceives limited control. -Emotional cognitions serve a purpose by helping us to consider and evaluate different possibilities about the stimulus **4) Constructivist Theories:** Propose that emotions are not innate, universal responses but are constructed through individual and cultural experiences. These theories emphasise the role of cognition, social learning, and language in shaping emotional experiences -View emotion as a complex and dynamic state that the brain constructs and includes cognitions -Brain constructs our emotions by comparing full sensory array, all inputs to the sensory and past experiences (which tells us was it dangerous?) -Emotions to similar situations change over time due to: reinterpretation of experiences, contextual changes, personal growth, learning and adaptation and social feedback. Because its shaped by individual and contextual factors. -Prediction error: prediction made by brain is wrong, **Prediction error** occurs when there is a mismatch, prompting the brain to update its predictions or interpretations. -Proprioceptive input: input coming from inside body. **[FEAR AND ANXIETY]** Fear and anxiety have similar components, both involve appraising a threat but stimulus, thoughts, nature of the threat, behaviours and physiological responses are different. Fear: specific stimulus, immediate threat, you can pinpoint, want to avoid or escape Anxiety: anticipation of a possible future threat, cannot pinpoint, stimulus is vague. Happens in response to ambiguous or uncertain situation. -Our cognitions play a role in stimulating fear and anxiety **Thoughts:** can also influence whether we feel fear or anxiety, so depends on the aspect we focus on, like severity of threat and how bad the outcome will be = fear, focusing on possibility of threat occurring= anxiety -In fear and anxiety, classical conditioning is important because it shows how bad experiences can teach us to associate certain stimuli with a threat. \- Happens more with natural stimuli because these are things that pose genuine risk to ancestors: Preparedness theory. **2 WAYS TO ACQUIRE FEAR:** 1. Language: allows us to communicate and convey complex information about things we have not experiences in first hand 2. Seeing: learn by watching others being afraid of the stimulus: Modelling **Physiology of fear and anxiety:** Physiological changes In our body when facing a threat stimulus is produced by SAM and HPA axis. **SAM (sympathetic Adreno-medullar system):** helps our body rapidly respond to the threat **HPA axis (hypothalamus, the pituitary gland, and the adrenal glands)**: takes its time, help us prepare for long term persistent threat particularly important for managing **chronic stress**. **-Hypothalamus**  detects the threat release of  **(CRH)**. \- CRH signals the **pituitary gland, to release ACTH** \- ACTH then signals the adrenal gland to release Cortisol \- Regulate **cortisol** levels for sustained energy and adaptation. Stress Response: 1. Face threat, AutonomicNS kicks in- Heart rate, blood pressure, digestion 2. Autonomic Nervous system is made of 2 -- SNS and PSNS 3. SNS: Flight or fight- increases blood pressure, heart rate, the accelerator 4. PSNS: SLOWS DOWN. The breaks, manages digestion **SAM:** sensory areas detect threat, sends message to SNS to act quickly increasing vigilance and alertness, can also release adre and noradrenaline. Inhibits non-essential functions, direct blood away from digestion into muscles and sweating, increases breathing, blood pressure. **HPA-AXIS:** does not rely on rapid firing nerves so slow, releases hormones into blood waiting for those to circulate organ to organ. Releases stress hormones like CORTISOL to break down fate into sugar for longer energy to supply muscle. Dimensional model of Defensive Behaviours by HAMM -Says anxiety and fear exist on a continuum, occur in cascade -Factor that determines whether we feel anxiety, fear or panic is the IMMINENCE of threat which then determines physiological changes. **ANXIETY:** Defence mode: Pre-encounter defence Activating event: context, environment where threat might happen Defensive behaviour: Hypervigilant, no appetite. **FEAR**: Defence mode: Post encounter defence Activating event: threat is detected Defensive behaviour: More selective attention, motor freezing **Extreme fear/Panic:** Defence mode: CIRCA-STRIKE DEFENCE Activating event: threat is imminent Defensive behaviour: fight or flight, panicking and tonic immobility, if fight: SNS will kick in (adrenaline, sweating, heart races, muscles prepare for action, attention resources are focusing on threat don't see anything else) **[BEHAVIOURS:]** Paul Ekman's facial expressions: most people in the world can identify afraid faces. -Anxiety and fear differ in terms of where they fall on the motivational dimension, fear is more avoidance and escape behaviour, anxiety is more approach emotion as elicits hypervigilance, looking up and down, scanning. Kryptos and colleagues: avoidance behaviours occur when you know that the threat is coming then you can either: 1. Passive avoidance: omitting behaviour that will lead to bad outcome 2. Active Avoidance: enacting a different behaviour that will prevent bad outcome Threat is imminent: Escape behaviour: Purpose of avoidance and escape is to help us survive, as well as learn about consequences of behaviours in scary situations: instrumental conditioning. -Instrumental conditioning: NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT: person faces threat (imminent or potential), performs avoidance or escape behaviour then recognises that the threat is no longer present, not scare anymore feel better. They learn that performing this behaviour will make scary thing go away feeling better short-term, associates action with feeling better and likely will do in the future This causes: if excessive: becomes MALADAPTIVE, causing distress, interferes with life, goals and impacts quality of life. **[ANXIETY DISORDERS:]** **STATE Emotions**: short-lived, happens in response to event **TRAIT Emotions**: long-lived, you get pattern of these happening regularly, they start to look like characteristics. **Comorbidity:** depression + anxiety disorder -Women more likely to get anxiety disorder -Impact of anxiety disorders: Severe impact on work, home, study, relationship and social lives. Also, high and very high levels of psychological distress **Causes:** no single reason but there are number of risk factors that increase likelihood **Biological Factors**: from twin studies: component of heritability, genetic risk **Physiology factors**: like blood-injection type phobia (biological tendency to faint) **Psychological factors**: -Neuroticism: tendency to experience negative emotions \- Psychological process of worry plays a role -People with anxiety disorders have a propensity to acquire fears more easily and slower in experiencing extinction. **Social/ Environmental factors:** Life stressors and traumatic events, another example: parental overprotectiveness **ANXIETY DISORDER:** Stimulus: real or imagined threat, nature of threat vary between disorders. Cognitive: Repetitive negative thinking, we call WORRY (plays a role in development and maintenance) Worry: verbal thoughts and imagery -we overestimate how likely something bad will happen and underestimate our ability to cope and deal with the bad outcome if happens. That maintains disorder. Physiology: Dimensional model of defence cascade (hypervigilant, flight or fight, symptoms last longer, more frequent. PANIC ATTACKS: Cluster of symptoms relating to flight or fight or freeze response Sudden surge of really intense fear that peaks around 10 min -transdiagnostic feature: can happen in any mental disorder **Cognitive**: fear of dying, losing control, going crazy Flight or fight: hear races and pounding, palpitations, upset stomach, odd temperature sensations, numbness, tingling, sweat (get chills), adrenaline release makes you shaky, trembling, breath deeper, pupil dilation **Behaviour:** avoidance (which becomes a habit even after extinction) Safety Behaviour: using certain object or performing certain behaviour before Reassurance seeking and checking behaviour : like kids **DIFFERENCES IN ANXIETY DISORDERS:** 1. **Nature of Stimulus**: the content of the fear 2. **Differences in Cognitions** **Core fears in each can differ:** A. Separation Anxiety B. Selective mutism: failure to speak in social situations C. Specific phobias D. Social anxiety fear of being evaluated negatively by others E. Panic Disorder: fear of having panic attacks F. AGOROPHOBIA: fear of situations where we might be able to escape or get help G. Generalised anxiety disorder: range of fears or worries about a number of different stimuli H. OCD, PTSD and Illness anxiety disorder: separated from anxiety disorder now because is fundamentally different So Emotional experience (intensity and quality), emotional expression, cognitive appraisal, physiological response can differ in each of those **SIMILARITIES:** - Contextual triggers, Physical sensations, Cognitive patters, social evaluation, avoidance behaviours - Cognitions: such as anticipation of the worst, overgeneralisation, negative self-talk, selective attention, fear of fear, viewing black or white **SPECIFIC PHOBIAS:** One of the most prevalent anxiety disorder. -Fear is the central feature -Stimulus is specific, threat is imminent or if person imagines a situation **Cognitions:** thoughts shift to focus on threat, think about severity of outcome **Physiology:** Hamm's cascade model and depends on proximity and environment context (if can escape or not) **Symptoms:** general autonomic arousal, increase heart rate, dilated pupils, blood supply away from non-essential functions like digestion and into muscles, sweating, attention, judgement and memory directed towards threat. **Behaviours:** escape and avoidance, if you can do that: intense fear and anxiety depending on proximity of threat **-Phobias tend to cluster in subtypes:** Animal phobias, natural environment, blood-injection-injury, situational, and others like chocking and vomiting How do we acquire: associative learning, classical and operant together (door handle) leading to fear drives avoidance behaviour- negative reinforcement, stops extinction learning **Mowrer's Dual- process model of avoidance:** 1. Fear acquired through classical conditioning 2. Negative reinforcement drives those avoidance behaviours 3. Avoidance prevents extinction learning 4. Negative reinforcement maintains fear 5. Never undergo extinction and prediction error learning HABIT: After undergoing extinction person can still perform avoidance behaviour because negative reinforcement is very powerful type of learning Habit not because we are motivated to avoid but because our sensory system detects stimuli and automatically prompts avoidance behaviour -there is no emotion happening in habit **GENERALISED ANXIETY DISORDER (GAD)** Core of GAD is anxiety (feels restless, on edge, fatigue, difficulty in concentrating, mind going blank, irritability, muscle tension and sleep disturbances), excessive worry about number of different things, worrying feels uncontrollable -Stimulus is varied Cognitions: involves worry -Physiology: anxious apprehension Worry: involves a chain of thought or images that are negatively and relatively uncontrollable, generalised about uncertain or negative possible outcomes. What-if thinking also involved. Theories in GAD: 1. **The avoidance model of worry and GAD:** Thoughts in different modalities (verbal/linguistic, mental commentary, imagery-based). Says verbal thought tend to elicit less emotional responses than imagery. -Imagery enhances emotional reactivity -Says: positive meta-cognitions(thought about thought) plays a role in keeping worry going, the beneficial thoughts about thoughts can enhance our ability to manage emotions, solve problems and make decisions But becomes problematic when: we don't hold those images and experiences associated emotions, not processing it emotionally and changing the meaning of it. The next time it comes to mind we will jut have the same meaning as the first time as well as fear and anxiety that comes with it triggering worry. **Avoidance prevents confronting and emotional processing the initial fears.** **Cognitive avoidance:** worry as avoidance of imagery and emotional/physiological arousal 2. **Meta-Cognitive Model:** framework that focuses on how people think about and regulate their own thinking processes, particularly in relation to emotional experiences, thoughts, and mental states. We have our positive meta cognitions (thoughts that say worry will be helpful) and those will encourage us to engage in worry as a strategy to copy or deal with stimulus But since we have type 1 worry (school, work, life), worry might not feel good anymore so we change to worry being uncontrollable, threatening = So we WORRY ABOUT WORRY= type 2 worry Then we engage in Cognitive avoidance: supress type 1 worry (like distractions, substitute for different thoughts) or avoid situation that might trigger type 1 worry. Long term it negatively reinforces. Now: type 1 is being stimulus triggering type 2 (worry about worry) 3. Intolerance of Uncertainty Model: Dysthymia: now refered as persistent depressive disorder -different gender experiences depression at different rates and stages of life -Prevalent in females -**Marriage on rates of depression**: mood disorders are prevalent on widowed, separated or divorced, people in de-facto and people that have not been married For men is protective effect, for women increases risks of developing Greatest risk of depression for women: 20-30 years, with 3 kids under 10 -In Australia mood disorder is more common in people who are unemployed Education: higher rate for those who have not completed school and tertiary education Depression: greater impact than anxiety disorder, can be heterogeneous disorder Depressive episode (single instance of depression) symptoms: low mood, loss of interest and/or pleasure in activities, appetite and weight changes, sleep disturbances, low motivation, difficulty concentrating and disturbances in energy levels. Difference between MDD (major depressive disorder) and sadness: differs in intensity, duration, symptoms, cause, context and impact on daily functioning. **1)COGNITIVE MODEL** -Role of the stimuli is playing is different between the 2 models, they focus on different components of emotion, both have empirical support behind them. 1\) Cognitive model of depression (beck and clark) Focus on cognitive components of emotion -Schemas leas to dysfunctional attitudes becomes activated when a person experiences negative event in life, this activated schema starts a chain of negative thought patterns resulting in symptoms of depression -Sometimes our schemas are dysfunctional as they might not be accurately representing the way things are, they can also be maladaptive, not helpful. \- This Model says that these negative/dysfunctional schemas lead to black and white negative beliefs about themselves, world and future= called COGNITE TRIAD -Once schemas are activated, they change how we perceive the world, they create Systematic Cognitive Bias -Schemas affect which stimuli we pay attention to= ATTENTION BIAS -Interpretation of stimulus becomes negative biases -Valence of people's mood influences valence of memories= MEMORY BIAS **POSITIVE SIDE OF SCHEMAS:** They are formed so they accurately represent the world around us, they allow automatic appraisal, mental shortcut to save cognitive resources, make quick judgement and respond rapidly. Without them we would have to rely on cognitive control system which is slower, more evaluative. **Negative schemas how they form?** 1)Moderate to severe depression people: most likely to have experienced traumatic event early in life and that affects the creating of enduring attitudes, leading to feelings of helpless and hopelessness if similar situations occur again. 2)Cognitive vulnerability: we become more vulnerable, so even less aversive events can trigger subsequent episodes of depression. 3\) Genetic disposition: causes certain brain structure like the amygdala to become hyperactive playing a big role in emotions Other is the underactive prefrontal cortex ( so diminished cognitive appraisal) which is involved in cognitive control activities like weighing different alternatives and reappraisal. **Activation of dysfunctional schemas translating to MDD:** Activated schemas influence appraisal of stressful events, if you appraise negatively everyday is more likely to feel symptoms like low mood more often and have the tendency to react negatively to everyday stressors, increasing risk of depression **How?** -Negative event or lots of small events actives dysfunctional schemas -Activated schemas influences how person interprets information -Attention, memory and interpretation of ambiguous event are all negative and a person's lived experience= negative too = global cognitive bias towards negatively Lead to symptoms of depression and negative evaluation of all that means REPEATED ACTIVATION OF DYSFUNCTIONAL SCHEMAS: leads to hypersensitivity, little stressors will trigger all that too, pessimism becomes person's default setting. **2)BEHAVIOURAL ACTIVATION MODEL** Not only thought but also behaviours that help with depression. Behaviour: helps and worsens as it contributes to maintenance **FOSTER:** people with depression performed avoidance/escape behaviours and those were driven by negative reinforcement Expressing a lot of those behaviours means you are experiencing lots of aversive events **Life stressors**: risk factor and catalysts for depression -In this model Genetics don't explain high rate or the fact that it fluctuates as people move through different life stages, instead Environment we experience plays a big role in determining who will develop and who will not. -Says: Behavioural factors drive and maintains depression **Functional reinforcement:** Positive reinforcement (going to movies) negative reinforcement (called in sick at work) Formalised functional analyses: TRAP MODEL **TRAP MODEL**: aims to identify the stimulus and behaviours that trigger and maintains depressive episodes. They see depression as a product of that situation and cognitive, biological adjunct. -Says it's the environment that triggers depression -People learn: Learned Helplessness (feel that cant change circumstances so just give up trying) -Avoidance and withdrawal narrow person's behavioural range, becomes so frequent that its hard to get our and do things you enjoy so IT minimizes the opportunities to find positive functional reinforcement. -**Repetitive punishment in life that functions primarily on negative reinforcement which establish behaviours patterns which get in the way of getting positive reinforcement**. BA- BEHAVIOURAL ACTIVATION MODEL: Lewinsonn proposed: depression could be caused by decrease in positive reinforcement from environment, leading people to withdrawal and engage less in activities leading to reduced positive reinforcement even further.- so cycle of inactively, low mood -So, BA turned into focus therapy, encourages people with depression to re-engage with meaningful, rewarding activities to break cycle. **[TREATMENT]** To ensure that practitioners are held to a high standard and they use treatment that have been shown to be effective in treating the condition, Australian system uses 2 fundamental concepts: 1. **The scientist-practitioner model:** - The best available research. - The client's individual needs, preferences, and values. - The clinician\'s own expertise and judgement. 2. **Evidence-based treatment/Practice:** 1. Strength of evidence: so, the reliability and validity of finding, level (high to low quality based on study design), Quality (how well the design executed and bias controlled for) and Statistical precision (how confident are we in this findings) 2. Size of effect: how much improvement did this treatment cause? 20 t 80% in symptoms? For example 3. Relevance of evidence: what outcome measured was used and how relevant is it. **Evidence-based treatments:** 2 most effective: CBT and exposure therapy for anxiety disorder CBT for GAD, panic disorder and social anxiety Specific phobias: exposure therapy Depression: CBT, behavioural activation, interpersonal therapy, couples therapy, acceptance and commitment therapy, psychodynamic therapy and problem solving therapy. But best for depression: CBT, BA and IPT **CBT** -talking therapy, systematically targets maintaining factors identified in models of disorders like stimuli, cognitions, physiology and behaviours. 1\) Therapists assess client, diagnosis 2\) Gives psychoeducation 3\) Formulates individual's case 4\) Cognitive interventions like challenging appraisals 5\) Behavioural interventions: exposure in order to reduce frequency of avoidance behaviours and replacement of avoidance behaviours 6\) Can do behavioural experiment with therapist (challenging cognitive appraisals, act to see that outcome is not what they expect) 7\) relapse prevention (therapists discuss signs to look out for) **Stepped-care**: idea that for some disorder you start low intensity interventions then move up to more intense if needed, **Degree of support**: Intense (hospitalisation), less intense: online therapy. **[STRESS]** \- Really broad, non-specific response that happens in the body when there is ANY demand for change made on our bodies -Our body's attempts to restore some sort of equilibrium and return the body to homeostasis after \- Stress response is your body's way of responding to help prop you back up straight again \- Stress occurs in response to change, and those things can be nice or not so nice. \- "a painful blow and a passionate kiss can be equally stressful." \- Stress can come in a range of forms. For example, we see **physical stressors**. These can include actual disturbances to our physiology that are going on right now, so things like injuries or illnesses, or if your body has an infection Psychological: similar to anxiety like anticipating a perceived threat, or it could be anticipating aversive environmental stimuli. It could be detecting cues for threat or predators, or even just a failure to satisfy your basic internal drives such as hunger, thirst or sleep. -High levels of stress is associated with greater illness frequency, greater incidence of obesity, poorer general health, greater progression of physical disability, increased symptoms of depression and anxiety, reduced cognitive capability as well as issues with your cardiovascular system, like hypertension, affect carotid intima-media thickness, contribute to coronary artery calcification -BUT Stress serves a really important biological function and is necessary for survival, and other like from immune responses to healing and recovering from injuries. \- At a daily level too, stress also allows the body to adapt to and regulate daily experiences like the role of cortisol in regulating our activities levels, metabolism, as well as sleep and waking up. \- Stress has also been shown to enhance our cognitive and physical performance. Exposure to stress before learning or training can enhance your learning for implicit memory and associative learning, -First thing that determines whether the stress is going to be helpful or harmful is the: **1) intensity of the stressor** (needs to be a healthy amount) **2) chronicity or duration of the stress**, although a short-term acute stress response can be helpful, if the stress is something that's ongoing and draws out over a long period of time, that can be unhelpful and can lead to some of the unhelpful health. , chronic stress leads to changes like that in your HPA axis, it becomes dysregulated because it's had to adapt to this new normal like body becoming resistant to some hormones can also lead to chronic inflammation or where your experiences alter your gene expression or whether certain genes are turned on= epigenic. **Appraisal Model:** **Biopsychosocial model of challenge and threat** this theory applies to situations of motivated performance, and it's an appraisal about the specific situation that we are in, not just our general beliefs. So, applies to things like, our upcoming exam. \- The **Biopsychosocial Model of Challenge and Threat** (BPS model) explains how individuals appraise and respond to stressful situations, framing their reactions as either a **challenge** or a **threat** \- According to this model, with motivated performance situations we make appraisals about both the demands of the task, we also think about our personal resources to cope. This would include thoughts like how prepared we are and our beliefs about how we usually do in exams Depending on how those two sets of appraisals balance out, we can respond with either a challenge state where we view the situation as a challenge that we totes have the resources to meet and cope with, or we view the situation as a threat that we don't have the resources to deal with -depending which one you choose it will have a big impact on stress response \- In a challenge state, the SAM system increases our heart rate and blood flow. The challenge state also allows for what's known as more responsive reactivity. This essentially means that the stress response switches on an off more rapidly in this state, so it allows for a faster return to homeostasis once the challenge is dealt with. \- In contrast, the threat state activates not only SAM but also the HPA axis. You also get a much more long-lasting stress response because of that cortisol that hangs around in the bloodstream. \- The challenge state has been associated with better performance than the threat state. A cardiac profile consistent with a challenge state during the speech actually showed significantly higher grades at the end of the term. \- Researchers have actually worked out a way to effectively change people's stress state and encourage appraisals consistent with a challenge state. One way that this has been done has been to get people to reappraise their physiological arousal as an extra resource (it's just your body preparing and getting ready to face the situation). Does not get rid of that arousal, it encouraging as an adaptive preparatory resource that will benefit you. -So, reappraising stress as a resource led to superior exam performance and also less evaluation anxiety. \- General beliefs about stress, also influences if stress going to lead to helpful consequences, we all have general beliefs or mindsets about various domains, including our personality, intelligence, and psychological resources. You might have heard about fixed mindset vs growth mindset. \- Growth mindset is where you believe that people can develop and grow over time, your abilities can be improved incrementally \- a fixed mindset is where you believe that a person's ability or personality is fixed and unable to change \- These mindsets influence our motivation and behavior. Holding a growth mindset encourages people to seek challenges and actually leads to improved performance in a range of domains including academic performance. \- "stress-as-enhancing" mindset =You might view stress as helpful or you may have a "stress-is-debilitating" mindset where you view stress unhelpful and something that will get in the way. \- People with the enhancing mindset had greater life satisfaction, fewer anxiety and depression symptoms, and higher dispositional resources such as optimism, resilience, and mindfulness. In students: showed more moderate cortisol reactivity and greater desire for feedback from peer and professor evaluators. Yerkes-Dodson curve: It suggests that performance improves with increased arousal, but only up to an optimal point. Beyond this optimal level, excessive arousal can lead to a decline in performance. This relationship is often illustrated as an inverted U-shaped curve. \- Moderate arousal levels typically lead to peak performance. -Too little arousal (e.g., boredom or fatigue) results in underperformance due to lack of motivation or focus. -Too much arousal (e.g., stress or anxiety) can impair performance by causing distraction, overthinking, or emotional overwhelm. **[Quiz]** **[1)]** **[How can mindset affect stress and performance?]** determines how individuals experience stress and perform in challenging situations. Mindset refers to the beliefs and attitudes people hold about themselves and their abilities, which can shape their perceptions of stress and influence their responses. A challenge mindset views stress as an opportunity for growth and a chance to overcome obstacles. threat mindset views stress as harmful and overwhelming. This mindset triggers maladaptive stress responses, such as anxiety, avoidance, and physiological strain. Growth Mindset: Belief that abilities can be developed through effort. Fixed Mindset: Belief that abilities are innate and unchangeable. Stress-is-Enhancing Mindset: Perceives stress as a motivator and a source of strength. Stress-is-Debilitating Mindset: Views stress as harmful and detrimental. **[2)]** **[The Yerkes-Dodson curve explains that:]** There is an inverted U-shaped relationship between arousal levels and performance. This means: Low Arousal: Performance is poor when arousal is too low because of insufficient motivation or focus (e.g., boredom or fatigue). Optimal Arousal: Performance peaks at moderate levels of arousal, where individuals are alert, motivated, and able to concentrate effectively. Depends on the complexity of the task (simple task vs complex task) High Arousal: Performance declines when arousal becomes too high, leading to stress, anxiety, or overstimulation. **[3)What are some of the effects of chronic stress?]** These effects are primarily due to prolonged activation of the HPA axis and the body\'s stress response systems, leading to an overproduction of stress hormones like cortisol. **Cardiovascular System:** Increased risk of hypertension, heart disease, and stroke. **Immune System**: Suppression of immune function **Digestive System:** Stomach ulcers, irritable bowel syndrome (IBS), or other gastrointestinal issues. **Endocrine System:** Dysregulation of cortisol levels, which can lead to fatigue, hormonal imbalances, and metabolic disorders. **Musculoskeletal System:** Chronic muscle tension, leading to headaches, back pain, or other musculoskeletal issues. **Sleep Disturbances:** Insomnia or poor-quality sleep, exacerbating fatigue and impairing recovery. Also, Mental Health Disorders, Cognitive Impairment and Emotional Dysregulation, Unhealthy Coping Mechanisms and Reduced Productivity: **[FULL REVISION:]** **1)Outline discreet and dimensional emotion approaches:** **Discreet:** emotions are distinct, biologically-based states that are universally recognized across cultures. There is a finite number of core emotions that can be clearly identified and categorized. Cultural Universality. **Dimensional Emotion Approach:** views emotions as existing along a continuum or multiple dimensions, such as arousal (intensity) and valence (pleasantness or unpleasantness) allowing for more fluid and complex emotional experiences. **2)Design a basic experiment measuring the effectiveness of a new drug in loweing anxiety. Identify independent and dependent variable. Ensure there is some form of control group:** 100 participants, volunteers diagnosed with GAD, randomly assigned to one of the 2 groups: treatment group and control group 50 participants receive new drug 50 receives placebo Pre-assessment: measure baseline anxiety levels using standardized anxiety scale Period: 8 weeks, participants do not know which one received placebo and which one received the new drug. Post assessment: re-evaluate anxiety levels using the same scale Independent variable: Treatment condition (new drug vs placebo) Dependent variable: anxiety levels (change in anxiety levels measured) Analysis: compare the pre and post treatment using statistical methods Conclusion: will determine if the new drug is effective compared to placebo. **3)real examples of Operant conditioning: positive and negative reinforcement and positive and negative punishment:** Positive reinforcement: Mum praises child for finishing homework in time, making the child feel encourage and more likely to do similar in future Negative reinforcement: Child cleans out room to stop parents from nagging them. The removal of nagging reinforces the behaviour of cleaning the room. Positive punishment: Child touches hot oven and feels pain, which will discourage the child from touching again Negative Punishment: Parent removes child IPAD after they missed curfew 4)How does Mower\'s two-stage model explain the development and maintenance of phobias? provides a behavioural explanation for the development and maintenance of phobias. It integrates classical conditioning and operant conditioning to explain how phobias are acquired and persist. -Acquisition of the Phobia (Classical Conditioning): 1-person gets bitten by dog (US) experiences fear (UR) -2Seeing a dog (previous neutral stimulus) becomes associated with the bite 3-dog becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS) that triggers fear (CR), even without another bite. -Maintenance of the Phobia (Operant Conditioning): Avoiding dogs reduces fear and anxiety, which rewards the behaviour (negative reinforcement). **5)In what ways fear and anxiety are similar and which ways they are different** **Differences:** **Aspect** **Fear** **Anxiety** ----------------------- ------------------------------------------ --------------------------------------- **Trigger** Immediate, identifiable, real threat Vague, diffuse, or imagined threat **Focus** Present-oriented Future-oriented **Duration** Short-term, subsides when threat is gone Long-lasting, often persistent **Response** Instinctive and automatic Often involves prolonged anticipation **Cognition** More direct and specific Often associated with rumination **Evolutionary Role** Survival in immediate danger Preparation for potential challenges **[Similar:]** -Emotional Components: Both involve a state of heightened arousal and alertness -They share physiological responses -Both serve adaptive purposes by preparing the body for action -Both can impair concentration and decision-making -Overlap in Disorders **6)** **In what ways moods and emotions are similar and what ways they are different?** -They differ in important ways, such as their duration, intensity, specificity, and triggers. -Similar: Subjective Experiences, Affective Components: Both involve valence (positive or negative) and arousal (high or low energy). Physiological and Cognitive Links: heart rate, hormones and attention, memory, and decision-making \- Both affect motivation and behaviour, shaping responses to environmental stimuli. **7) Outline Beck\'s cognitive model of depression:** explains how maladaptive thought patterns contribute to the onset and maintenance of depression. This theory is foundational in cognitive-behavioural therapy (CBT) and highlights the interaction between thoughts, emotions, and behaviours in depression. \- Cognitive Triad: a negative view of three key areas: World, themselves and the future. \- Negative Core Beliefs, Cognitive Distortions(catastrophic, negative self talk, overgeneralisation), Behavioural Reinforcement (avoidance and withdrawal) \- **Cycle of Depression** - Negative beliefs → Cognitive distortions → Negative emotions → Maladaptive behaviours → Reinforcement of negative beliefs. 8\) Outline the components of emotion for the three different anxiety disorders that we discussed in the course. \- physiological, cognitive, and behavioural **GAD**: So physiological: overactivation of the Autonomic NS, sweating, nausea, fatigue Cognitive: persistent worry feeling like is uncontrollable, focusing on worst-case scenario. Behavioural: procrastination, avoidance and reduced engagement in activities. **Panic disorder** Physiological: intense activation of flight or fight, sweating, heart race, Cognitive: feelings of going crazy, dying, anxiety about having future attacks. Behavioural: avoidance, safety behaviours, social withdrawal Specific phobia: Physiological: heart races, pounding, sweating, trembling. Cognitive: persistent belief about danger, overstimulation of threat, anxiety about future encounter with threat Behavioural: avoidance, intense distress, escaping, safety behaviours. 9\) **The relationship between safety behaviours and extinction** Safety behaviours are actions or strategies that individuals use to prevent or minimise perceived threats or reduce anxiety during feared situations and can interfere with extinction: Inhibiting Fear Reduction, Blocking the Processing of Disconfirming Evidence and Maintaining Conditioned Fear Responses 10\) **The relationship between safety behaviours, negative reinforcement, and the maintenance of disorders** - Safety behaviours reduce immediate fear or discomfort, providing relief. This relief serves as negative reinforcement, strengthening reliance on these behaviours and preventing individuals from learning that the feared outcome is unlikely or not as catastrophic as anticipated. - Safety behaviours often lead to avoidance which prevent the disconfirmation of feared beliefs and contribute to the chronic nature of the disorder. **\ **