Psych A1.pdf

com Developmental Psychology  Foundational Aspects Development is widely recognised as a lifelong process that extends into late adulthood Take a lifespan view and cover all areas of human development, from prenatal development to death Developmental stages: Prenata...

com Developmental Psychology  Foundational Aspects Development is widely recognised as a lifelong process that extends into late adulthood Take a lifespan view and cover all areas of human development, from prenatal development to death Developmental stages: Prenatal development Early & middle childhood Adolescence Adulthood Domains of Development: Physical Cognitive Socio-emotional o All development is interrelated and interactive  Physical development Includes physiological 1. Prenatal changes and motor development 4. Middle- 2. Neonatal childhood 3. Pre-school Neonatal Middle- Prenatal Preschool childhood period period period period C ep halocaudal Physical Germinal Vis ion Developmental growth slows Tren d down Proximodistal Brain : growth Embryonic Hearing Developmental spurt (frontal) Trend Body Foetal Tas te & s mell proportions change prenatal period progress before birth Science & society continue to consider the roles of genetics, environmental & parental (particularly maternal) factors on child development As a result – the debate about the relative importance of biological & environmental factors is ongoing From conception to birth = 9 months of pregnancy A great deal of important development occurs before birth Stage 1 – germinal stage (0-2 weeks) Last from conception to about 2 weeks Conception = moment when the sperm cell fertilises the ovum (egg cell), zygote is formed Rapid cell division occurs & the mass of cells migrates to the uterus Implants into the uterine wall, forms a placenta during the implantation process Stage 2 – embryonic stage (2-8 weeks) From the end of the 2nd week until the 8th week Development of the placenta and the umbilical cord Most of the vital organs and bodily systems such as the heart, spine and brain emerge Time of great vulnerability Embryo is contained in a sac within the mother’s uterus and is surrounded by amniotic fluid, which cushions & protects the embryo Stage 3 – foetal stage (8 Weeks – birth) Lasts from 8 weeks to birth During the early parts of this stage, the muscles and bones begin to form  Sex organs develop in the third month and brain cells multiply during the final three months By about 26 weeks, the zone of viability is reached – when the baby could survive if born prematurely (NB) At 22/23 weeks – the chances of survival are slim By 26-28 weeks – the chances improve to a survival rate of about 85% Factors influencing on prenatal development Culture, family, Maternal stress & Maternal Illness Maternal nutrition Maternal drug use Genetic disorders environmental emotion & Psychopathology toxins o Stress h ormones o A lcohol o M any illnesses o Gene o Culture (epinephrine, o Smo king – po se h igh risk for abnormalities influences no repinephrine, smaller, low birth damaging brain o Ch romosome th oughts & adreno- weight, higher dev elopment - abnormalities decision around co rticotropic risk o f lead to pregnancy & h o rmone) miscarriage intellectual & ch ild-rearing o Effect of blood o Oth er o ther disorders o M iscarriages pressure , substances o Rubella, Suphilis, o Ch anges in immune system o Prescription & H IV family structure o v er-the counter o v er time drugs o Environmental to xins: air po llution, radioactivity Neonatal period Spans approximately the first 2-4 weeks after birth Transition from relatively safe environment of its mother’s uterus to an environment where it must now breathe & feed on it’s own  The newborn baby (neonate) is much more competent than was previously thought Display more than 20 reflexes over which they initially have no control o Involuntary responses to specific stimuli o Important for the newborn’s survival ▪ Rooting ▪ Sucking ▪ Swallowing for feeding The absence of reflexes may be an early indication of neurological problems Perceptual development Neonates are able to take in information from their environment via their Taste & smell Hearing Well-developed sense of smell Can distinguish human speech Can distinguish between different from other sound smells Can distinguish between human Their sense of taste is also well speech sounds developed A preference for their mother’s Strong preference for sweet as voice opposed to sour tastes Baby talk directed towards them Vision Present at birth Certain parts of the eye & visual cortex are not fully developed, nor is the ability to coordinate the movement of eyes Cannot focus properly – blurry vision Neonates actively scan their surroundings Can see objects about 21 cm away Distinct preference for looking at faces, patterns rather than plain stimuli & patterns with sharp contrasts senses Preschool period Characterised by rapid growth during the first 2 years of life, slower pattern of growth between the ages of 2 & 6 years Growth follows the cephalocaudal developmental trend & the proximodistal developmental trend Cephalocaudal Development Trend (top-down) From the head downward Trunk grows fastest during the 1st year – gain control over muscles of the head and neck, then the arms and abdomen & finally the legs By 4 – 6 months – birth weight has often doubled – by end year one, birth weight has tripled Body proportions also change o At 2 years – the head is about ¼ of total body size; by 5 ½ years it is 1/6 th The brain increases from being 25% if its eventual adult weight at birth to being about 50% at the age of one year The brain & nervous system develop increasingly dense neural networks Ability to acquire new information increases o Genetics & the environment influence the growth Malnutrition may stunt brain growth & cognitive development Very physically active – engaging in activities such as running, walking, hopping, jumping, skipping & climbing Children improve both gross motor skills & fine motor skills o Gross motor skills – capabilities involving large body movements such as walking, running & hopping o Fine motor skills - capabilities involving small body movements such as handling a spoon & writing Proximodistal developmental trend o From the centre outward o Gross motor skills develop faster than fine motor skills during this period Preference for right or left hand begins to show at about two years Develops slowly – only established at about age 5 to 6 Environmental factors can stunt or delay normal development o Sustained periods of malnutrition are associated with stunted physical growth, reduced activity levels & delays in maturation & learning Middle childhood ( 6 – puberty ) Slower average growth rate Increase in strength, coordination & muscular control, leads to improved gross motor & fine motor skills An improvement in motor-perceptual functioning ( hand-eye coordination ) 3 main environmental influences on physical growth & development : the quality care, nutrition & illnesses  Brain continues to grow in both structure and function Between five & seven years, the brain experiences a growth spurt, particularly in the frontal lobes & their connections to other parts of the brain o Frontal lobe development is important for planning and for the sequential organisation of thoughts & actions Adolescence Puberty is the stage during which sexual functions reach maturity, marking the beginning of adolescence. o It is during puberty that the primary sex characteristics, the structures necessary for reproduction, develop fully. In females, the onset of puberty is signalled by menarche – the first occurrence of menstruation. In males, it is signalled by sperm production. At this time, males begin to show acne, facial and body hair, voice change, muscle development and the ability to ejaculate. Females also develop acne, as well as body hair, breast development, rounded contours, as well as menstruation. Psychological consequences of body changes largely influenced by gender. Eating disorders most often begin in adolescence. Body changes in adolescence for transgender adolescents may be challenging as well and associated with body image, eating problems, and psychological challenges. Social pressures play a big role. Early adulthood Prime of life: physical peak Problem free overall health First signs of aging from late 20’s onwards SA Health risks: young adults are at risk both from violence and from disease. In this age group, individuals are amongst those most at risk of death or injury through almost all forms of violence, including violent assault and suicide, and motor vehicle collisions Middle adulthood Spans from age 40-60 (Dependent on life expectancy of a country's population) Perceptible decline in physical attributes and functioning. Decrease in muscle size, increased body fat retention and decline in dexterity  Decline in visual capacities from about age 40 Women reach menopause and males experience a decline in sexual responsiveness Good diet and regular exercise can slow down aging process Health Risks: During middle adulthood, the individual becomes increasingly susceptible to the risk of various ailments, such as cardiovascular diseases (which include cardiac disorders, arteriosclerosis and hypertension), various forms of cancer, arthritis and respiratory diseases. Late adulthood/old age Traditionally use age 60 as marker for onset of late adulthood The commencement of late adulthood coincides with senescence – the increasing decline of all the body’s systems, including the cardiovascular, respiratory, endocrine and immune systems The belief that old age is always associated with profound intellectual and physical infirmity is a myth. o The majority of older people retain most of their physical and cognitive abilities. Increased susceptibility to illness during this stage of development is largely a result of the progressive degeneration of the body. In South Africa, however, many older people who have experienced a lifetime of poor diet, arduous physical labour, multiple pregnancies and inadequate reproductive health care have an even greater susceptibility to ill health  Cognitive development Refers to the age-related changes that occur in mental activities such as paying attention, perceiving, learning, thinking & remembering The transition in children’s pattern of thinking, including: o Reasoning o Remembering o Problem solving Jean piaget the interaction with the environment & maturation gradually alters the way children think Occurs through 2 complementary processes: Assimilation - interpreting new experiences in Accomodation terms of existing mental - changing existing mental structures without changing structures to explain new them experiences Piaget proposed that children’s thought processes go through a series of 4 major stages  1. PIAGET’S 1.P i ag e t ’ sTHEORY: t h e o r y :44 STAGES s t ag e s OFo f COGNITIVE C ogn itiv e DDEVELOPMENT e v e lop m e n t Pre-school period Sensorimotor stage 1 : birth – 2 years Coordination of sensory input & motor responses Development of object permanence Progressively develops coordination of sensory input & motor responses Move from reflex action to goal directed activity Primitive understanding of cause & effect Learn by doing : look, touch, sucking Begin to make us of memory, imitation & thought Symbolic representation Object permanence: the recognition that objects continue to exist when they are no longer visible Preoperational Stage (2 - 7 years) Development of symbolic thought marked by irreversibility, centration & egocentrism Children engage in symbolic thought and pretend play. However, with characteristic flaws in their reasoning such as: Irreversibility: inability to envision reversing an action. Centration: the tendency to focus on just one feature of a problem, and Egocentrism: the limited ability to share another's viewpoint. Animism: the belief that all things are living, just like oneself. Lack conservation in their thinking:  o cannot understand that quantities can remain the same regardless of changes in appearance. Preoperational child (aged between 2-7) will say the taller glass has more water as they have not yet developed the ability of conservation which develops at the concrete operational stage https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hyhK9beGuQU Language development At birth, undifferentiated crying to communicate their needs. After the first month, caregivers can distinguish cries of pain, hunger, discomfort, tiredness and boredom by listening to the pitch of the cry. Six to eight weeks, babies start making cooing sounds. Around four months, babies utter consonant-vowel combinations in long strings, such as 'babababa' or 'mamamama'. Six to seven months, babbling starts to resemble the child's home language. o Most children utter their first word at about 12 months. o Start with holo-phrases: one-word sentences to convey the meaning of a whole sentence. Vocabulary increases to about 50 words by the age of 18 months. At about 24 months, babies use telegraphic speech. Only those words that are necessary to communicate meaning. From three to six years, vocabulary and sentence length increase. By age six the child uses all the parts of speech. o Vocabulary spurt: develops a vocabulary of approximately 10 000 words. Four years later their vocabulary increases to around 40 000 words. Middle childhood Concrete Operational Stage (7 - 11 years) Mental operations applied to concrete events Mastery of conservation Hierarchical classification Earlier limitations in thinking are overcome. Thinking becomes less egocentric and more logical. Features of the concrete operational thought are: Conservation: recognise that properties of objects do not change because their form changes. Reversibility: One operation can be reversed by the effects of another.  Compensation: can mentally compare changes in two aspects and say that the one change compensates for the other. Decentration: can simultaneously focus attention on several attributes of an object. Seriation: can arrange objects along quantitative dimensions. Transitivity: can recognise relations amongst a number of ordered objects. Requires real objects. Cannot mentally manipulate abstract ideas or hypothetical events. Adolescence Formal operational period The formal operational period (11-adulthood) marked by the ability to apply operations to abstract concepts such as justice, love, and free will. Able to solve abstract problems in a logical way More scientific in thinking (logic, comparisons and classification) Implications of cognitive changes in adolescents Adolescent egocentrism: refers to the adolescent’s preoccupation with the self and related self-consciousness, The effects of egocentrism in formal operational thinking have been described using the concepts of personal myths, the invincibility fable and the imaginary audience: Personal myths refer to adolescents’ fantasies about themselves as unique and special. Invincibility fable involves unrealistic ideas about themselves as invincible and untouchable (facilitates risk taking behaviour). The imaginary audience refers to an adolescent’s self-consciousness and self-centredness, which stems from the belief that the adolescent is always the centre of focus in any situation. Mature cognitive development is generally viewed as characterised by rationality, independence and self-sufficiency, which are traditionally seen as masculine characteristics, as opposed to emotional sensitivity, sensitivity to relationships and inter-dependence, which are traditionally seen as feminine qualities. Early adulthood Despite Piaget’s theory certain writers believe cognitive development progresses beyond formal operational thinking during early adulthood.  Thinking during early adulthood is more complex, more global and more adaptive than the formal operational thinking of adolescence generally allows for. During early adulthood, thinking is less absolute and abstract than during adolescence, and therefore allows the individual to deal with unpredictable challenges and the practical problems of life much more effectively. Middle adulthood Age-related changes in middle adulthood are highly variable and this trend increases with age Episodic memory declines steadily during adulthood, although some research has shown a steeper drop in early middle adulthood. However, for many individuals, cognitive functioning does not show any dramatic decline during middle adulthood. During middle adulthood, the individual’s cognitive abilities may be as good as during early adulthood. Some research even shows that reasoning and verbal skills may actually improve during this stage. The period from 40 to 60 years is characterised by fairly steady intellectual productivity or output, which is generally well above the levels attained by their counterparts who are in their twenties. This trend may be explained by the idea of crystallised intelligence as it represents an increasing fund of knowledge. Late adulthood The cognitive abilities of older adults may decrease in late adulthood, in particular the ability to rapidly and flexibly manipulate ideas and symbols. Reasoning, mathematical ability, comprehension, novel problem-solving and working memory all decline over this period Alzheimer’s disease is a dementia that may affect older people VYGOTSKY Lev Vygotsky, a Russian psychologist. Important challenge to Piaget's theory. Focuses on how culture is transmitted between generations. Vygotsky saw cognitive growth as a socially mediated activity. Children gradually acquire new ways of thinking and behaving through cooperative dialogues with more knowledgeable members of society. Higher mental functions: acquired through guided instruction from more competent people in their environment.  o These functions are internalised by the child over the course of development. Sociocultural theory of cognitive development Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD): - NB the hypothetical space within which the child interacts with the caregiver or teacher. It marks the boundaries between the child's actual level of development and their potential development. The level of cognitive tasks a child can perform with the help of a competent instructor. Area where we are able to learn things with help Scaffolding: A scaffold provides temporary support while a task is being completed. Specific guidance is provided to a child learning a new skill until they are able to complete it alone. May include: defining the task in familiar terms; breaking the task down into logical parts; demonstrate parts of the task; actively motivate learners. o Motivating them to believe they can do it  Moral Development 2.KOHLBERG’S 2.K o h l b e r g ’ s STAGE S t ag e THEORY Th e or y A stage theory of moral development based on subjects' responses to presented moral dilemmas. Kohlberg was interested in a person's reasoning, not necessarily their answer. People progress through a series of three levels of moral development, each of which can be broken into two sublevels. Each stage represents a different way of thinking about right and wrong. Principle Social contract Law & other Pleasing Others Self interest Reward & punishment 1st level = pre-conventional o Reward/punishment o Self interest 2 level = conventional nd o Pleasing others  o Law & order 3 level = post-conventional rd o Social contract o Principle Preconventional level: Think in terms of external authority - acts are considered wrong or right based on whether or not they are punished for them. Stage 1 -Punishment Orientation : motivation Avoid punishment Stage 2 -Naïve Reward Orientation : motivation Reward Serve own needs Reciprocal benefit Conventional level: See rules as necessary for maintaining social order, it gains them approval and they believe rules should be applied rigidly. Stage 1 -Good Boy/Girl Orientation: motivation Gain approval Avoid disapproval Stage 2-Authority Orientation: motivation Uphold laws Avoid harm Postconventional level: Acts are individually judged by a personal code of ethics. At this stage someone might allow for the possibility that an individual may not comply to societies rules if they in conflict with personal ethics. Stage 1 -Social Contract Orientation: motivation Welfare of all Commitment to rational rules agreed to by all Stage 2 -Individual Principles & Conscience Orientation: motivation Uphold person principles (even if this means breaking the rules) A Moral dilemma Nosipho's younger brother Siyanda is very ill and needs to get to hospital. Her older brother is desperately worried about Siyanda but he has no money to pay for transport. He decides to steal some money for transport out of his neighbour's house. Should Nosipho's brother have stolen the money? Why or why not? Social & Emotional Development neonatal period Emotional Development: Temperament In the first year of life, children can show a wide range of emotions. Infants show consistent differences in emotional tone, tempo of activity and sensitivity to environmental stimuli very early in life. Temperament: An individual's characteristic manner of responding to the environment. o characteristics of mood, activity level & emotional reactivity. o Some babies cheerful while others are irritable. Individual differences in temperament appear to be influenced to a considerable degree by heredity. Although temperament tends to be fairly stable over time, theorists emphasize that it is not unchangeable. There appear to be some modest cultural differences in the prevalence of specific temperamental styles Preschool period Attachment The close, emotional bonds of affection that develop between infants and their caregivers. The cornerstone of all relationships. Made up of the emotional, social, cognitive and physical connection of infants and young children with their primary caregivers. Not just a “special affection”. Enduring bond that one person has for another who fulfils needs for safety and comfort Attachment and Separation Anxiety Separation anxiety emotional distress when separated from people with whom they have formed an attachment. o Emerges 7-9 months o Peak 14-18 months o Seen in many cultures, suggests attachment is universal Stranger Danger Wary reaction to strangers. o Peak at 8-10 months and gradually declines in intensity Theories of attachment John BOWLBY One of the most dominant theories of attachment was proposed by John Bowlby, a prominent British psychoanalyst. Ethological theory (attachment has evolutionary mechanism) Bowlby asserted that attachment has a biological basis. According to Bowlby, infants are programmed by evolution to exhibit endearing behaviour − such as smiling, cooing, and clinging − that triggers an affectionate, protective response from adults. Behaviors (crying, clinging, proximity seeking) – keeps carer nearby. Mary Ainsworth Mary Ainsworth: showed that attachments vary in character. The strange situation procedure: assesses the quality of attachment between 1- to 2-year-old infants and their caregivers. The strange situation procedure puts infants through a series of short separations from, and reunions with, their caregivers.  As a result, Ainsworth concluded that attachment falls into three patterns: o Secure o Anxious−ambivalent o Avoidant Secure attachment: playing and exploring comfortably when caregiver is present, becoming visibly upset when they leave and calming quickly upon their return. Most infants have a secure attachment, Correlational evidence suggests that babies with secure attachment tend to show favourable traits as they develop through childhood, such as resilience, self- reliance, curiosity and leadership. Insecure-avoidant attachment (avoidant attachment): seek little contact with their caregiver and are not distressed when they leave. Appear independent and self-sufficient. Insecure-resistant attachment (anxious-ambivalent): upset by the departure of the caregiver and protest excessively when they leave but are not particularly comforted when they return. Display ambivalent behaviour alternating between seeking comfort and the rejecting that comfort. Disorganised attachment: show confusion about whether they should approach the caregiver or not. Displayed marked fear in the presence of their caregiver. Infants whose behaviour did not easily fit the other categories. Adolescence Seen as a troublesome stage of development “Storm and Stress”: natural moodiness of adolescents There is a growing argument in developmental psychology that adolescence is not necessarily a traumatic process or time of upheaval It is now more widely accepted that there may not be one common experience of adolescence, but rather that this stage may take on different forms across different cultures, and even within different families and for different individuals. Personality development : Freud Freud: foundation for personality laid down by age 5  Erik Erikson's Psychosocial Theory of Development o Early childhood experiences leave permanent stamp on adult personality o Evolve not only until 5 year, but across lifespan and how social experiences play a role o Erikson: 8 stage Psychosocial Development of personality o Each stage build on the preceding stage and paves the way for the periods of development to follow Parenting styles (Baumrind) Three main styles of parenting identified by Baumrind: Permissive: Parents are warm and nurturing. o Very few demands are made and rules are not enforced. o Children are permitted to express their impulses and parents do not monitor their children's activities. o Children make many of their own decisions at an age when they are not yet capable of doing so responsibly. o Children are often found to be generally immature and impulsive. Authoritative These parents are warm and responsive to the needs of their children Set limits and explains the reasoning behind these limits Have open communication & involve children in decision-making Listen to the concerns of the children and are flexible when appropriate – encourage autonomy Children tend to be self-reliant, self-controlled & soundly competent Authoritarian Set absolute standards & rules for their children Rely on force & punishment to enforce their standards Show very little warmth Preschoolers were generally anxious, withdrawn & unhappy  3.NSAMENANG’S 3.Ns am e n an g ’ sSOCIAL S o c ial SELFHOOD S e l f h o o d THEORY Th e or y Bame Nsamenang proposed an African view of the human life cycle Conceptualises social selfhood development as made up of seven stages, the first three of which take place across the neonatal and preschool periods Each stage is characterised by a distinct developmental task and social roles. the first social stage covers the birth and the naming of the newborn to integrate them into the community. o Parents play a central role, and the allocation of names is influenced by historical and circumstantial factors related to the family. The second social stage, infancy, is considered to be pre-social o Development is characterised by biological markers or reflexes such as smiling, crying, teething and sitting. The third social stage, childhood, involves social roles being gradually learned. o Children are expected to become aware of, internalise, and practise the learned social roles Adolescence Nsamenang proposed that social selfhood development in adolescence is made up of two stages: social entrée and social internship Social entrée occurs during puberty and is characterised by the appearance of secondary sexual characteristics (e.g. breasts and facial hair) and may see some individuals attending initiation ceremonies and schools, depending on what ethnic group they come from. Social internship occurs during adolescence, and involves the child being inducted into social roles. This stage prepares adolescents for adult life and trains them to be responsible adults. Relationships with their community, family & peers Adolescent child strives for autonomy, “pulling away” and this can cause conflict  This conflict serves an important function in the development of the adolescent into an autonomous adult. The role of peers in the adolescent’s life is central. Peer group pressure is seen as very powerful in adolescence, and the adolescent has been shown to spend far more time with peers than anyone else. Conforming to peers is not necessarily negative, as peer groups may also inspire pro-social behaviours. On the other hand, some of the areas of risk for adolescents, such as teenage pregnancy, substance abuse and violence, are clearly areas where peer pressure can play a negative role. Risk-taking behaviour: Page 104-106 Risk behavior: behavior that places individual at risk for negative social, psychological or physical consequence. Development of the Gender Concept Traditionally, an infant is assigned a binary sex at birth based on their genitalia, either male or female o The infant is then referred to as a “boy” or a “girl” in their social environment By the age of three, preschoolers label themselves as either a ‘boy’ or a ‘girl’ and so are said to have acquired a gender identity o Begin to act according to gender roles, which are the behaviours considered appropriate for them according to their biological sex Caregivers’ differential treatment reinforces gender roles  4.ERIKSON’S 4. E r ik son ’ s PSYCHOSOCIAL P sy c h osoc ial THEORY T h e or y 8 stages across the lifespan Each stage has a 'psychosocial crisis' that must be successfully resolved. Personality is shaped by how the individual deals with these crises. Each crisis entails a struggle between 2 opposing tendencies, which represent personality traits in varying degrees later in life Conflict dealt with successfully will serve as a strength throughout life (mastery or ego strength), and if not dealt with effectively can result in struggles and poor sense of self (inadequacy in specific area of development) Preschool period The first three stages occur in early childhood. Stage 1: trust vs mistrust the infant in its first year of life must depend solely on its caregiver, which should lead to a trusting view of the world. (or distrusting and pessimistic) Stage 2: autonomy vs shame and doubt the child begins to take personal responsibility and should acquire a sense of self-sufficiency and autonomy (or doubt, shame and not good enough). Stage 3: initiative vs guilt children should learn to get along with family members, experiment, and take initiative, leading to self-confidence. (or guilty for taking initiative) Middle childhood Stage 4: industry vs inferiority children must function socially outside of the bounds of their family which is less nurturing and emphasizes productivity from which a sense of competence should evolve. (or struggles with competence can lead to low self esteem) The development of self-concept and self-esteem Self-concept refers to how we see or describe ourselves. Made up of self-perceptions, abilities, personality characteristics and behaviours that are organised and generally consistent with one another. Develops from their experiences and represents how they see themselves. The ideal self is based on children’s hopes and wishes and reflects how they would like to see themselves. Self-esteem: the evaluation of one’s worth as a person, based on an assessment of the qualities that make up the self-concept. The development of self-esteem is facilitated by the challenges they are confronted with in the school system, such as the challenges generated by learning tasks and their interaction with teachers and peers. The importance of schools in social development Schools are a powerful agent of socialisation during middle childhood Cultural norms and values are conveyed here. One of the purposes of schooling is to extend the socialisation process begun by the family. Children are expected to relate to a new form of authority, namely teachers, follow a new set of rules, make new friends and learn to get along with other children who are not their friends. School provides the child with the knowledge and skills necessary for adjustment in adulthood. Adolescence Stage 5- identity vs confusion According to Erikson, the key challenge of adolescence is to form a clear sense of identity Identity: beliefs, ideas and values that guide our actions, beliefs and behaviours Pursuit of alternative behaviours and styles, striving to mold experiences into a cohesive sense of self Personal identity shaped by experiences and interactions Failure to resolve this crisis will result in identity confusion. May take the form of social isolation or loss of identity in groups. Successful resolution will result in a settled, stable and mature identity. Patterns of Identity Formation James Marcia asserts that the presence or absence of crisis and commitment during the identity formation stage can combine in various ways to produce four different identity statuses. Identity diffusion is a state of lack of direction and apathy, where a person does not confront the challenge and commit to an ideology.  Foreclosure is a premature commitment to a role prescribed by one’s parents, guardians or society. A moratorium involves delaying commitment and engaging in experimentation with different roles. Identity achievement involves arriving at a sense of self and direction after some consideration of alternative possibilities. Risk-taking behaviour : pay attention to page 104-106 Risk behavior: behavior that places individual at risk for negative social, psychological or physical consequence. Early adulthood Stage 6 -intimacy vs isolation (study page 107-108) According to Erikson, adulthood involves three stages Intimacy vs isolation is the concern with the ability to share intimacy with others, and should lead to empathy and openness Have romantic and imporatnt rleationships whle still having healthy, well- balnced sense of self Middle adulthood Stage 7 -Generativity VS. Self-absorption According to Erikson, adulthood involves three stages Intimacy vs isolation is the concern with the ability to share intimacy with others, and should lead to empathy and openness Have romantic and imporatnt rleationships whle still having healthy, well- balanced sense of self Late adulthood (pg 109-111 =study) Retirement and economic adjustments Family and social roles Death and dying Erikson: Integrity vs Despair Stage 8 -integrity vs. despair involves overcoming the tendency to dwell on mistakes of the past, as well as the imminent presence of death Find meaning and satisfaction in life instead of wallowing in bitterness and resentment  Terminology accommodation: the process in cognitive development whereby infants change and expand their previous schemas to include new experiences amniotic fluid: the fluid that fills the amniotic sac that contains the developing embryo and foetus animism: the thought process whereby human-like qualities are attributed to inanimate objects assimilation: the process in developmental change whereby new experiences are incorporated into existing schemas, thus expanding them attachment: the third phase in the development of the attachment system, where the infant actively seeks proximity to the primary caregiver and uses this person as a secure base from which to explore the world attachment behaviours: particular behaviours exhibited by an infant with the purpose of gaining proximity to the caregiver, thus ensuring the infant’s survival attachment system: the inborn, genetically pre-programmed propensity of infants to display attachment behaviours authoritarian: the style of parenting where parents set absolute standards and show little warmth authoritative: the style of parenting where parents are firm but warm and open autonomy versus shame and doubt: according to Erikson, the psychosocial challenge for toddlers in the second and third years of life cephalocaudal developmental trend: the sequence of physical growth that proceeds from the head and progresses downwards cognitive development: the age-related changes that occur in mental activities such as attending, perceiving, learning, thinking and remembering compensation: a feature of children’s thinking, when changes in one aspect of a problem are mentally compared with, and compensated for, by changes in another conception: the moment at which the ovum and sperm merge concrete operational stage: the third stage identified in Piaget’s theory of cognitive development, when children are capable of logical thought in relation to concrete events and phenomena conservation: the principle that quantities remain the same despite changes in their appearance constructive play: creative activities such as making up a story, doing artwork and so on  cooperative dialogue: ways in which children interact with more knowledgeable members of society cooperative play: when children interact with each other at play cultural tools: ways of functioning in response to the demands of the culture in which a child is raised decentration: a feature of children’s thinking, when they can consider multiple aspects of a stimulus or situation discriminating sociability: the second phase in the development of the attachment system, where the infant becomes more discriminating towards his/her primary caregiver disorganised attachment: a fourth category of attachment behaviour that describes infants who show a marked and pervasive fear in the presence of the primary caregiver egocentric stage: the stage of development in which, according to Vygotsky, children between the ages of three and seven use external speech to control their actions egocentrism: the tendency of children to view everything from their own perspective embryo: the term given to the developing organism once it has successfully implanted in the uterus embryonic stage: the six weeks of prenatal development after the germinal stage ethics-of-care orientation: a feminist ethical approach that bases moral decision-making on relational and contextual aspects external speech: the speech produced by children talking aloud to themselves, which Vygotsky said is used by children to direct their behaviour fallopian tubes: the narrow tubes where the ovum is fertilised and along which the zygote travels to the uterus fine motor skills: skills or capabilities involving small body movements foetal alcohol syndrome (FAS): a group of symptoms found in babies whose mothers were heavy drinkers of alcohol during pregnancy foetal stage: the stage of prenatal development from the third to the ninth month of pregnancy gender identity: a person’s subjective sense of their own gender gender roles: the way people behave based on their assigned sex germinal stage: the first two weeks of prenatal development after conception gross motor skills: skills or capabilities involving large body movements higher mental functions: sophisticated cognitive abilities that include internal, language-based mental tools holophrases: single words used to convey the meaning of a whole sentence  ideal self: an element of a child’s self-concept based on that child’s hopes and wishes, and reflecting how that child would like to see themselves industry: the sense of competency that children acquire by encountering the challenges of school and dealing with them in a way that produces positive outcomes industry versus inferiority: according to Erikson, the psychosocial crisis that must be resolved during middle childhood inferiority: according to Erikson, the feeling that children develop if they encounter the challenges of school and experience negative outcomes that lead them to devalue their personal accomplishments initiative versus guilt: according to Erikson, the psychosocial challenge for children between the ages of three and six years inner (private) speech: the language that is used by a child to talk silently to themself, which, according to Vygotsky, shows that the child can shape and direct thinking insecure-avoidant attachment: the attachment behaviour where infants appear unperturbed by the departure of their primary caregiver, and seem independent and self-sufficient insecure-resistant attachment: the attachment behaviour where infants seem upset by the departure of their primary caregiver, but upon reunion display ambivalent behaviour, alternating between seeking comfort and rejecting that comfort mitosis: the process by which the zygote divides into identical cells neonatal period: a period of development from birth to approximately one month after birth neonate: a newly born infant up to the age of around four weeks object permanence: the realisation that an object or person continues to exist even when no longer visible ontogenetic development: the aspects of physical, emotional, social and cognitive development that are influenced by experiences within the environment (including people we interact with in the environment) outcomes-based education (OBE) : a system of education that is based on the principles that all learners can be successful, that success at one level promotes success at the next level, and that schools and teachers control the conditions for learners’ success ovum: the female reproductive cell parallel play: children play alongside each other in the same area permissive: the style of parenting where parents are warm and allow children an inappropriate amount of freedom placenta: a complex organ made of tissue from the embryo and the mother  practice play: new skills are repeated in play preoperational stage: according to Piaget, the stage of development that occurs between the ages of two and seven years, when children use symbolic thought but not the cognitive operations necessary for logical thought proximodistal developmental trend: the sequence of physical growth that proceeds from the centre of the body outward psychosocial theory of development: Erikson’s theory that postulates that people must deal with a series of crises as they pass through eight stages of development from birth to death reciprocal relationship: the final stage in the development of the attachment system, where infants begin to understand other people’s motives and feelings reflexes: inborn actions over which the neonate and/or young infant has no control resilience: the ability to adapt effectively in the face of adverse circumstances reversibility: a feature of children’s thinking that involves the ability to mentally reverse actions or situations scaffolding: temporary support while a task is being completed schema: a pattern of thought or behaviour used to organise categories of information and the relationships between them secure attachment: the attachment behaviour where infants are upset by the departure of their primary caregivers, but upon reunion are soothed and fairly quickly resume exploratory play self-concept: a belief that a person has about themself that is made up of self-perceptions, abilities, personality characteristics and behaviours that are organised and generally consistent with one another self-esteem: a person’s evaluation of their own worth as a person, based on an assessment of the qualities that make up their selfconcept sensorimotor stage: according to Piaget, the stage of development that occurs from birth to two years of age, when infants gain knowledge about their environments through an increasing ability to coordinate their sensory input with motor activity separation anxiety: an infant’s fear of being separated from their primary caregiver seriation: a feature of children’s thinking when children master the ability to arrange objects in order along quantitative dimensions, such as weight, length or size  signalling: behaviours, such as vocalising and/or crying, designed to bring a caregiver to the infant socially mediated activity: cognitive growth in which children acquire new ways of thinking by interacting with knowledgeable members of society social selfhood development: the experiential period of personhood that spans child naming until death. social stage: the stage of development between birth and the age of three years when, according to Vygotsky, children use language to express simple thoughts and feelings solitary play: children playing by themselves sperm: the male reproductive cell(s) stranger anxiety: an infant’s fear of strangers Strange Situation: an experimental procedure used by Ainsworth and her colleagues in order to test and measure Bowlby’s attachment ideas symbolic play: pretend play which peaks during the preschool period symbolic representation: the fifth sub-stage in the sensorimotor stage of development, where infants aged between one and a half to two years plan actions on the basis of imagined realities telegraphic speech: only those words that are necessary to convey meaning temperament: an individual’s characteristic manner of responding to the environment teratogens: harmful, environmental agents that interfere with normal prenatal development transitivity: a feature of children’s thinking that refers to the ability to recognise relations among elements in a serial order trust versus mistrust: according to Erikson, the psychosocial challenge for infants in the first year of life umbilical cord: the tube connecting the embryo to the placenta zone of proximal development (ZPD): Vygotsky’s term for an area that is bounded by the level of problem-solving that a child can perform on their own and the level of problem-solving that a child is capable of given the assistance of a competent instructor zone of viability: the period during which a prematurely born foetus may have a chance of survival zygote: the single cell formed as a result of the merging activity theory: a theory that posits that the elderly want and need to remain active, and that they consequently substitute new roles and activities for those they are forced to relinquish owing to retirement and withdrawal from certain social functions  adolescence: the stage of human development that follows middle childhood and serves as a transition from childhood to adulthood Adult Attachment Interview (AAI) :a semi-structured autobiographical narrative tool designed to access adults’ representations of their own attachment relationships during infancy and childhood Alzheimer’s disease: a degenerative brain disorder that results in a decline in intelligence, awareness and the ability to control bodily functions androgynous: a personality or social orientation that combines positive characteristics that are typically viewed as ‘feminine’ with positive characteristics that are generally viewed as ‘masculine’ anorexia nervosa: an eating disorder, where people refuse to eat because they imagine themselves to be fat autonomous: an adult’s state of mind that is assessed by the Adult Attachment Interview and is found to be secure with respect to attachment, where the adult can recall a range of positive and negative feelings about their early attachment experiences bulimia nervosa: an eating disorder where people eat but then privately vomit up what they have eaten, because they imagine themselves to be fat cohabitation: a term used to refer to two unmarried people living together as intimate partners continuity theory: a theory that posits that, in terms of their behaviours and preferences, the elderly carry on with their lives in much the same way as they did before becoming elderly commitment: according to Erikson, a process during adolescent identity formation that refers to the extent of a person’s involvement in, and allegiance to, choices they make crystallised intelligence: an individual’s learned ability to process information (including analysis and problem-solving), as well as this individual’s vocabulary and general knowledge dementia: the deterioration of the intellect and personality sometimes associated with the ageing processes of late adulthood disengagement theory: a theory that posits that during late adulthood the ageing individual progressively disengages from society while society, in turn, increasingly disengages from the individual dismissing: an adult’s state of mind that is assessed by the Adult Attachment Interview and is found to be insecure with respect to attachment, where the adult may minimise attachment behaviours and feelings, and present a picture of being immune to hurt or even being in need of emotional intimacy early adulthood: the first stage of adulthood lasting from approximately 20 to 39 years of age  egocentrism: a preoccupation with the self, and a person’s related self- consciousness exploration: a process proposed by Erikson whereby adolescents actively explore future possibilities, where choices that parents have made are re- evaluated and alternatives that are more personally satisfying are considered fluid intelligence: an intelligence based on neurological speed and efficiency, which is said to increase until late adolescence and then to decline throughout adulthood formal operational thinking: within a Piagetian framework, the cognitive thinking that develops during adolescence generativity: an Eriksonian term that refers to the individual’s urge and commitment to take care of the next generation generativity versus stagnation: according to Erikson, the psychosocial challenge for adults in the phase of middle adulthood, when these adults choose to invest energy in the next generation or to indulge themselves instead hypothetico-deductive thinking: the ability and desire to actively plan and problem-solve, which is characteristic of formal operational thinking identity: the positive resolution of the psychosocial crisis where adolescents struggle and experiment with conflicting identities as they move from the security of childhood to develop autonomous adult identities identity achievement: a state of adolescent identity formation identified by Marcia, when adolescents have gone through a period of decision-making and are actively pursuing their goals identity confusion: the unsuccessful resolution of the psychosocial crisis when adolescents struggle to develop an autonomous adult identity identity diffusion: a state of adolescent identity formation identified by Marcia, when adolescents have explored alternative choices, but have not been able to settle on any one identity foreclosure: a state of adolescent identity formation identified by Marcia, when adolescents are seen to be actively pursuing their goals, although their choices are based on what their parents and others have chosen for them identity moratorium: a state of adolescent identity formation identified by Marcia, when adolescents remain undecided as to future goals or choices, and are therefore in an identity crisis imaginary audience: a term used to refer to the common adolescent assumption that they are always the centre of attention integrity versus despair: according to Erikson, the psychosocial challenge for adults in the phase of late adulthood, when integrity is achieved through a  meaningful understanding of one’s life achievements and despair involves looking back on one’s life with regret and a sense of missed opportunities intimacy versus isolation: according to Erikson, the psychosocial challenge for adults in the phase of early adulthood, when these adults either form intimate relationships or are left feeling socially isolated invincibility fable: adolescents’ unrealistic ideas about themselves as invincible and untouchable late adulthood: the final stage of adulthood lasting from approximately 60 years of age until the end of life menarche: the beginning of the menstrual cycle in young women menopause: a time during middle adulthood when a woman stops menstruating and is no longer able to bear children middle adulthood: the second stage of adulthood lasting approximately between 40 to 59 years of age personal myths: adolescents’ fantasies about themselves as unique and special preoccupied: an adult’s state of mind that is assessed by the Adult Attachment Interview and is found to be insecure with respect to attachment, where the adult may struggle with managing anxiety, exaggerate emotion, maintain negative beliefs about the self and respond to loss with unusually intense anger and depression primary sexual characteristics: bodily aspects following puberty that are directly related to reproduction puberty: a period of rapid physical maturation involving hormonal and bodily changes that occur primary during early adolescence secondary sexual characteristics: bodily aspects following puberty that distinguish the sexes but which are not directly related to reproduction senescence: the increasing decline of all the body’s systems(including the cardiovascular, respiratory, endocrine and immune systems) during late adulthood spermarche: the beginning of sperm production in young men storm and stress: the way in which adolescence was described by the ‘father’ of adolescent psychology, G. Stanley Hall unresolved/disorganised: an adult’s state of mind that is assessed by the Adult Attachment Interview and is found to show a lack of resolution regarding past traumatic experiences relating to attachment  Weekly quiz 1. Which one of the following concepts is controversial when it comes to understanding the rate at which infants and children develop? a. The erogenous zones b. Developmental norms c. Motor, emotional and social trends. d. Infantile sexuality 2. If a baby is born with a small head, heart defects, and retarded mental and motor development, the mother is most likely to have: a. smoked during pregnancy b. frequently consumed alcohol. c. had smallpox early in her pregnancy. d. continued to work during pregnancy. 3. On average, toddlers are capable of using between three and fifty words by eighteen months. Thereafter, they experience a vocabulary spurt, and by the age six, the average child develops a vocabulary of approximately ________ words; after which, ________ years later their vocabulary increases to around 40 000 words. | a. 10 000; 3 | 10 000; 3 b. 20 000; 3 | 20 000; 3 c. 20 000; 4 | 20 000; 4 d. 10 000; 4 | 10 000; 4 4. Erik Erikson foregrounds a series of ____________________ that people must overcome in order to proceed from one developmental stage to another. a. psychosocial crises b. fixation points c. developmental tasks d. psychosexual crises 5. The age of viability refers to the age at which the foetus ________________________, is reached _______________. a. can survive if born prematurely; between 23 and 26 weeks b. first has a heartbeat; at about 16 weeks c. can first respond to stimulation; at about 9 weeks d. experiences no further cell division in the brain; between 36 and 38 weeks 6. Slindile is four months-old. She is temperamental, sensitive to changes and disturbances in the environment, struggles to sleep at regular time intervals, and cries profusely when her parents soothe her. Slindile has a: a. Anxious attachment b. an uninhibited temperament c. Anxious-ambivalent attachment d. a difficult temperament 7. The emotional bond between an infant and its caregiver is referred to as: a. attachment. b. dependency. c. imprinting. d. identification. 8. Luan is sixteen years-old, and often engages in risky behaviour such as under-age driving, and unprotected sex. According to developmental theory, a possible explanation for his behaviour would be that a. the occipital cortex is the last area of the brain to fully mature. b. the executive control centre of the brain is not yet fully developed. c. risky behaviour peaks during early adolescence. d. the hypothalamus is the last area of the brain to reach maturation. 9. Palesa is upset because she is convinced her brother has a bigger piece of cake than her. To appease her, their father slices Palesa’s piece of cake in two and says she now has "more" cake than her brother. If Palesa, does indeed, believe she has more cake, it would suggest she: a. has not yet mastered object permanence. b. does not understand the process of assimilation. c. does not yet understand conservation. d. is displaying egocentric reasoning 10. As Hennie approaches his late fifties, he is having some difficulty remembering. For instance, he often loses or misplaces important items such as keys and forgets birthdays. It is most likely that Hennie’s symptoms can be attributed to: a. age-related cognitive decline. b. Alzheimers disease. c. old age. d. late adulthood. memo 1. B 2. B 3. D 4. A 5. A 6. D 7. A 8. B 9. C 10. A  Additional MCQ’s 1. The first two weeks after conception are referred to as the ____________ of prenatal development. a) embryonic stage b) germinal stage c) prenatal stage d) foetal stage 2. Teratogens are: a) elements of the internal environment that affect foetal growth and development. b) the name given to the cell mass that provides the embryo with its life-support systems. c) the collection of symptoms displayed by babies and associated with excessive exposure to alcohol. d) harmful external environmental agents that can affect foetal growth and development. 3. Which one of the following is not an attachment behaviour? a) crying b) crawling c) signalling d) vocalising 4. Walking, throwing, writing and tying shoelaces are capacities collectively known as: a) gross motor skills. b) fine motor skills. c) integrated motor skills. d) none of the above. 5. At about what age does handedness develop in a preschool child? a) from birth b) at about two years of age c) between three and four years of age d) at about five to six years of age 6. According to Erikson, which three psychosocial stages of development fall within the preschool period of development? a) trust versus mistrust; initiative versus shame and doubt; industry versus inferiority b) autonomy versus shame and doubt; initiative versus guilt; integrity versus despair c) trust versus mistrust; autonomy versus shame and doubt; initiative versus guilt d) trust versus guilt; autonomy versus role confusion; initiative versus inferiority 7. Which of the following is not one of Baumrind’s parenting styles used by parents of preschool children? a) authoritarian b) autocratic c) authoritative d) permissive 8. When a child realises that, although a balloon may be large, it can also be light, that child is demonstrating the ability called: a) decentration. b) conservation. c) seriation. d) reversibility. 9. Transitivity is the ability to: a) arrange objects in order along quantitative dimensions, such as weight, length or size. b) recognise that properties of objects or substances do not change because their form changes. c) recognise relations amongst a number of ordered objects. d) none of the above. 10. To which influential theorist can we attribute the theory focusing on how culture is transmitted from one generation to the next? a) L. Vygotsky b) J. Piaget c) S. Freud d) E. Erikson 11. _________, known as the ‘father of adolescent psychology’, used the term ‘__________’ to describe adolescence. a) Sigmund Freud; ‘the phallic stage’ b) G. Stanley Hall; ‘storm and stress’ c) Erik Erikson; ‘identity versus identity confusion’ d) H.S. Sullivan; ‘the importance of friends’ 12. Puberty begins with: a) hormonal increases that manifest in a range of internal and external bodily changes. b) the knowledge that one is now a man or a woman. c) social rewards for being an adult. d) all of the above. 13. Recent South African research indicates that currently __________ are most at risk of contracting HIV/AIDS: a) women in the stage of young adulthood b) men in the stage of young adulthood c) women in the stage of middle adulthood d) men in the stage of middle adulthood 14. The physical experience of middle and late adulthood: a) generally occurs earlier amongst lower income, unskilled workers than amongst higher income professionals. b) generally occurs earlier amongst higher income professionals than amongst lower income, unskilled workers. c) is determined exclusively by genetic factors. d) cannot be slowed by diet and exercise. 15. Senescence refers to: a) the synthesis between feminine and masculine traits. b) the improved efficiency of neurological processes during middle adulthood. c) the individual’s improved intellectual functioning during middle adulthood. d) the decline in the body’s systems during late adulthood. 16. According to Piaget, the adolescent is capable of __________, which refers to an ability to __________. a) concrete operational thinking; carry out practical and material based thinking b) systemic thinking; see things in context c) formal operational thinking; think more abstractly, more idealistically and more logically d) imaginary thinking; visualise the future 17. Fluid intelligence is said to: a) remain stable throughout adulthood. b) increase throughout adulthood. c) decline throughout adulthood. d) refer to the individual’s learned ability to analyse and solve problems. 18. Personal myths refer to adolescents’: a) unrealistic notions of invincibility and untouchability. b) fantasies about themselves as unique and special. c) obsession with their body image. d) belief that they are always the focus in any situation. 19. According to Erik Erikson, __________ is the key issue for the adolescent who is in the __________ stage of development, in which the crisis is one of __________. a) peer pressure; 7th; individuality versus sociability b) differentiation; 6th; dependence versus independence c) identity; 5th; identity versus identity confusion d) parental disengagement; 8th; self versus family 20. According to Erik Erikson’s theory, the primary psychosocial challenge during middle adulthood is: a) to strike a balance between generativity and self-absorption or stagnation. b) to strike a balance between intimacy and isolation. c) to confront the tension between identity achievement and identity diffusion. d) to confront the tension between integrating life experiences and the despair resulting from possible missed opportunities in life. Memo 1. D 2. D 3. C 4. A 5. D 6. B 7. C 8. A 9. B 10. B 11. B 12. A 13. A 14. A 15. D 16. C 17. C 18. B 19. C 20. A  Pages mentioned from textbook Adolescent risk-taking behaviour: page 104-106 Early adulthood: page 107-108 Middle adulthood: page 108-109 LATE ADULTHOOD: PAGe 109-111 Pages to exclude 74-75 Box 3.9 Page 80-81 81 81-82 83-84 Box 4.4 Page 103-104 Box 4.8, 4.9 & 4.10 Psychopathology  Defining Psychopathology Psyche = mind Pathology = disease o Mental illness What is normal/abnormal? o Depends on gender o Culture/context/time The normality debate Drawing the line between what is defined as normal, and abnormal, is to this day unclear. o Not surprising given the historical conceptualizations of mental illness. o Example, homosexuality was originally listed as a mental disorder. o What does the future hold? Criteria that can be used Statistical deviance: The use of statistical norms (or behaviour and experience) to determine what is supposedly normal. Anything outside of the norm o With this viewpoint, anything outside the norm, is considered abnormal. You can’t apply these systems to different cultures o The problem is that what is considered normal/abnormal is largely dependent on socio-cultural context. o For example, behaviours like talking to oneself in public and public nudity, while abnormal in most western culture are quite normal in many African cultures o Thus, abnormality and statistical deviance cannot always be equated. You can’t apply it across all groups – saying one person falls outside of the statistical deviance is pathologically abnormal Deviation from the norm isn’t always negative – could be positive too o Autism – good in arts Maladaptiveness = not being able to adapt/adjust to yourself/other people The extent to which certain behaviours are maladaptive to the self/ others.  with this viewpoint, behaviours that prevent an individual from adapting/adjusting for the good of another individual/ the group. are considered abnormal. Again, cultural context makes this less straightforward. For example, in many African countries female circumcision ceremonies are still conducted, which is a practice viewed as barbaric and abnormal by other contexts. They don’t see it as barbaric – they might see it more as growth It’s adaptive for one person but not for another Personal distress Often associated with what makes up a mental disorder. Once again, there are exceptions For example, individuals with antisocial personality disorder (psychopaths, sociopaths), often do not experience appropriate forms of distress but rather derive pleasure from inflicting pain on others. Distress isn’t always abnormal Like when one passes away – grief o Once it lasts longer than the normal time period – then it’s a sign it’s developing into a disorder Like when one gets married Violence Interviews & other pressures Not having a certain level of distress – also indicates abnormality o If an person is numb – PTSD o The lack of emotional expression is just as bad if not worse than an abnormal emotional expression Conclusion o There is no clear-cut criteria as to what defines normal/abnormal o At best – we have developed guidelines & contextual considerations  Mental illness CLASSIFICATION C l as s if ic at io n METHODS M e th ods Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, fifth edition (DSM-V) By American Psychiatric Association Released in 2013 o We use this in training & practitioners also use this International Classification of Diseases, eleventh edition (ICD-11) By World Health Organization Released in 2018 o ICD is more representative and used in more countries WHAT W h at IS is A a PSYCHOLOGICAL P s y c h o l o g ic al DDISORDER? is o r d e r ? DSM 5’S definition " A mental disorder is a syndrome characterized by clinically significant disturbance in an individual's cognition, emotion regulation, behaviour that reflects a dysfunction in the following processes underlying mental functioning" (DSM 5): Psychological, Biological, Developmental ICD 11’s definition " Mental, behavioural and neurodevelopmental disorders are syndromes characterized by clinically significant disturbance in an individual's cognition, emotional regulation, or behaviour that reflects a dysfunction in the psychological, biological, or developmental process that underlie mental and behavioural functioning (ICD 11). Misperceptions about mental illness Current examples Odd, bizarre Dangerous, violent Adjectives – how many times have you heard people say “I’m feeling anxious”, “I’m OCD about keeping things neat” – these terms are being used as adjectives – leads to misconceptions about the actual disorders Lay conceptualizations of mental illness Alarming global trend – despite increased access to mental health services, use of those services have not increased. In SA, more that half of all health problems are psychological – patients still avoid seeking treatment. Why?  Public’s stigmatizing attitudes towards the mentally ill  Lack of knowledge among the public of mental illness Roadblock to treatment – stigma Weak? Violence?  Etiological factors : perspectives & approaches Looks at wat causes psychopathology How is it created Focus on pages 552-556 BIOMEDICAL B io m e d ic al PERSPECTIVE P e r s p e c t iv e The viewpoint that all mental illness has a biological cause, and that other factors take on a secondary role. Abnormalities occur in 3 areas Genetic predisposition: Presence of family history of mental illness increases vulnerability to developing a psychological disorder. Inherited factors : psychotic/bipolar present in family history = higher likelihood to be passed onto child o Serious disorders Abnormal functioning of neurotransmitters An increase/decrease in neurotransmitters e.g. dopamine and serotonin are associated with the presence of certain psychological disorders. Neurotransmitters are the chemical in the brain o Serotonin & dopamine associated o Low serotonin = low levels of serotonin o Bipolar mood disorder person ▪ High= manic phase ▪ Low= depressive phase Structural brain abnormalities Could be due to genetic disorders, birth defects, drug related / physical damage. Certain abnormalities are linked to the presence of psychological disorders. Has long been established that different parts of the brain are associated with different functions o Damage to certain areas – cause damage to specific function o What causes these abnormalities ▪ Genes ▪ Birth defects ▪ Injury (physical) In mothers womb or after Structural brain damage during development – leads to psychological issues ▪ Drug use by mother during pregnancy – direct influence on the brain P s y c h o l o g ic al PSYCHOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE P e r s p e c t iv e Psychodynamic perspective Derived from Freud’s psychoanalysis View that we are influenced by internal forces that exist outside of our consciousness. Psychological symptoms are seen as a result of the compromise between the expression and repression of our forbidden wishes. The way we relate to others & ourselves are caused by forces outside individual consciousness How much is there a push and pull to express our desires & how we repress them Views the causation of psychopathology as a constant compromise between the expression & repression of our forbidden desires Cognitive-behaviour perspective Ways of thinking directly impact emotions & behaviors  View that cognitions or learned ways of thinking, directly impact an individual’s emotions and behaviours. Psychological symptoms are seen as due to irrational beliefs and automatic thoughts that result from them. o Individualistic process with the focus on internal thought processing o Distress e.g due to irrational beliefs ▪ People develop these beliefs very early on ▪ Pattern of reinforcement of these beliefs continue throughout a person’s life COMMUNITY C om m u n ity PERSPECTIVE P e r s p e c t iv e The viewpoint that psychopathology stems from within the context of a community. Different considerations within the community The political context Facilitates ideas for e.g., of inferiority and superiority. After effects of apartheid - internalization of negative thoughts. Plays a role in formations of psychopathology o One of the major focuses – was to challenge authorities because of the effect on mental health ▪ Classism ▪ Status ▪ Apartheid – after effects Inherited internal stereotypes & generalizations By the government at that time These belief systems continue thereafter The social context Social factors can contribute to the development of psychopathology. Factors such as: socioeconomic status, access to resources, values, stigma, violence, substance use. o Considers day to day challenges people face : socioeconomic status ▪ Stressor & their effects on community/individual mental health  o Access to services ▪ Lack of clinical psychologist availability ▪ Lack of access ▪ Private sector is still very expensive – medical aid limits the number of sessions o Values ▪ Facilitates stigma ▪ How does the community view mental health & illness ▪ Religion ▪ Negative perceptions on mental health o Other things to consider ▪ Gang violence ▪ Crime Some communities have more vioence than others o This effects development of psychopathology ▪ Substant abuse – more predominant in one community than another More exposure in community with high incidents of this o Environmental & society factors The cultural context According to this viewpoint, how an individual experiences distress or makes sense of psychological issues, is dependent on deeply ingrained cultural beliefs and practices. o SA is described as a melting pot of diversity : languages, cultures, religion, etc ▪ Hard to define ▪ Impact of these different viewpoints on psychopathology For e.g. in Zulu and isiXhosa cultures, ukithwasa can be erroneously mistaken for psychosis or similar. o Emotional turmoil o Hearing voices Western conditions – “psychosis” o Health practitioners should: ▪ Be aware of such cultural conditions ▪ Not ignore contextual considerations ▪ They shouldn’t go ahead with western diagnosis of psychosis Globally there has been acknowledgement of the impact of culture in etiology of psychopathology o GSM – American Psychiatric Association  ▪ Acknowledges culture : conditions & research to back the symptoms for these conditions across the globe o There is also a cultural interview to ▪ Acknowledge the role of culture in the etiology of psychopathology ▪ Help practitioners in terms of guidance for treatment & management ▪ The fact that this happens at a global scale empphasises the need to practice it at a local scale especially in SA where diversity is high SUMMARY Su m m ar y Looked at different perspectives 1. Biomedical Perspective : ▪ Genetic predisposition ▪ Abnormal functioning of neurotransmitter ▪ Structural brain abnormalities 2. Psychological Perspective : ▪ Psychodynamic ▪ Cognitive-behavior 3. Community perspective ▪ Political Context ▪ Social Context ▪ Cultural Context Each of these perspectives could be used together Can’t just use on perspective There is usually an interplay between all of those perspectives ito how an disorder comes into account Psychologists use an combination of these perspectives  INTEGRATED I n t e g r at e d APPROACH A p p r o ac h TO T o PSYCHOPATHOLOGY P s y c h o p at h o l o g y Takes all perspectives into account There are 2 models of integrated etiology The diathesis-stress model Introduced by Meehl (1962) Of the viewpoint that some inherit/develop predispositions (diathesis). However, symptoms of psychopathology only emerge when there are environmental/biological stressors that convert them into psychopathology. Suggests all of us are born with certain vulnerabilities to psychopathology (nature debate) o Depends on exposure to environmental/biological stressors that convert them into psychopathology The biopsychosocial model Integrates biological, psychological and social factors that contribute to the development of psychopathology. In recent years the has been expanded to consider cultural & spiritual factors o But at the base line COVERS BIOPSYCHOSOCIAL FACTORS Predisposing Precipitating Perpetuating Protective Biological Psychological Social Predisposing factors Genetics/family history of mental illness Precipitating factors Looks at triggers/recent events Bio – car accident – brain injury Perpetuating factors Things that maintain the disorder Alcohol/ drug addiction (biol) Protective Are there thing in place that helps when it comes to treatment/management of disorder Social – do they have friends/family o E.g depression friends/family will help o Psychological – how well does the person understand themselves ▪ Affects how they deal with it We focus on this model for treatment/management informing o How mental illness comes about in the first place  Features of psychological disorders DSM V Diagnosis Main defining symptoms Intellectual disability Subaverage intellectual and adaptive functioning disorder Autism spectrum disorder Severely impaired social interaction & communication Pica Persistent eating of non-nutritious substances Neurocognitive disorder Disturbances of consciousness and cognitive ability Substance use disorders Maladaptive pattern of substance use Bipolar I disorder Manic and depressive phases of mood Panic disorder Recurrent unexpected panic attacks Obsessive-compulsive Obsessive thoughts and compulsive behaviours disorder Conversion disorder Motor/sensory impairment with no physical cause Factitious disorder Intentional production of symptoms to play “sick role” Dissociative identity Presence of two/more distinct identities in one disorder person Male orgasmic disorder Delay/absence of orgasm following sexual excitement Insomnia disorder Difficulty initiating/maintaining sleep Adjustment disorder Symptoms in relation to a particular stressor Narcissistic personality Grandiose sense of self importance disorder Trauma TRAUMA T r a u m a WITHIN W it h inTHE T h eSA SA CONTEXT C on t e x t Since SA is characterised by a high incidence of crime and violence, PTSD is one of the most frequently diagnosed disorders. Prevalence in SA is well above international norms NORMAL RESPONSES N or m a l R e s p on s e s TO To TRAUMA Tr au m a After stressful/traumatic experiences most people will experience a degree of distress as they tray to adapt to what has happened. They may experience: Feelings of mild anxiety, depression Distressing thoughts and memories of the event Difficulty sleeping Hyper alert to signs of danger o NB: This is normal response to an abnormal event! It’s when these symptoms persist past and do not begin to fade that it develops into a disorder. Examples of traumatic events Child neglect Being involved in a MVA/ PVA Sexual violations All forms of abuse Domestic violence & Battery Witnessing murder Being held captive Trauma & stressor related disorders Reactive attachment disorder pattern of inhibited emotionally withdrawn behaviour toward caregiver- rarely seeks and responds to comfort Disinhibited social engagement disorder pattern of inhibited emotionally withdrawn behaviour toward caregiver- rarely seeks and responds to comfort Post traumatic stress disorder enduring psychological disturbance attributed to experiencing/witnessing a traumatic event. more than a month Acute stress disorder duration is 3 days to one month of event Adjustment disorder occurring within 3 months of the stressor POST-TRAUMATIC P o s t -T r au m at icSTRESS S tr e ss DDISORDER is o r d e r Exposure to actual/ threatened death, serious injury, or sexual violence in 1 of the ffg. Ways: Directly experiencing Witnessing Learning that it happened to a close family member/ friend Experiencing repeated/extreme exposure to aversive details of the event Symptoms of ptsd Hyperarousal First symptom Persistent expectation of danger Hypervigilence, Easily startled, irritable with little provocation Intrusion An oscillating rhythm is established Re-experiencing an imprint of the trauma as if it were continually recurring Flashbacks (wake state), nightmares (sleep state) Persistent avoidance of stimuli associated with event. Constriction An oscillating rhythm is established Numbing response of total surrender Detached calm, indifference Dissociative amnesia, depersonalization, Depersonalization = feeling detached from body BIOLOGICAL FACTORS Genetics Vulnerability to PTSD may be inherited Neuroimaging findings Differences in brain activity between people with PTSD & those without – in response to threatening/emotional stimuli  Differences occur in brain areas associated with regulating emotion, fight/flight response & memory: amygdala, hippocampus, prefrontal cortex. Biochemical findings Abnormally low levels of cortisol in those with PTSD (when not exposed to reminders of the trauma, i.e. resting levels) PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS Dynamics before the event: Personality traits, family history of mental illness – may predispose an individual/ aggravate the course (Austin et al, 2014). Also influences their coping styles. Psychoanalytic explanations: the re-experiencing symptoms ffg. a traumatic experience are a form of ‘repetition compulsion’ (Kaminer & Eagle, 2010). Cognitive explanations: the assimilation and accommodation of the trauma into cognitive schemas (Kaminer & Eagle, 2010). SOCIAL FACTORS Community context – high crime rate : gang violence, theft, murder etc. Countries experiencing war/political upheaval. COMPLEX C om p le x PTSD P T SD A reality in many economically disadvantaged communities such as those in SA. Situations of prolonged abuse at the hands of another (domestic violence situations) Repeated exposure to community violence (gang violence & gun warfare) o Discussion point: Is this PTSD? Do we need a new category? Many south Africans do not enjoy a sense of personal safety & security at home/ outside home. o Discussion point: This was used by defense in the Oscar Pistorius case ▪ In PTSD there is a post trauma period – which many south Africans don’t have, as another event is likely to occur. Cumulative/ continuous trauma. Research has yet to determine whether the effects of a single trauma exposure/ multiple/ continuous events differ.  ▪ He claimed that due to the high crime rate in SA – he never felt safe – was highly anxious and hypervigilant – any signs of a break in and he reacted without thinking SCHIZOPHRENIA S c h iz op h r e n ia Pages 559 – 561 Schizophrenia spectrum disorders Delusional disorder Brief psychotic disorder less than a month Schizophreniform disorder same as schiz, but difference in duration of symptoms (at least 1 month, less than 6) Schizophrenia 1 month+ Schizoaffective disorder Symptoms of schizophrenia Delusions Fixed beliefs. Themes: Persecutory, Referential, Religious, Grandiose Hallucinations Sensory-like experiences. Auditory (most common), Visual, Kinesthetic, Olfactory, Gustatory Disorganized Thinking Observable through speech. Tangential, word salad, flight of ideas Grossly Disorganized or Abnormal Motor Behaviour Catatonia, psychomotor agitation/retardation Negative Symptoms Avolition, alogia, anhedonia o Avolition – lack of motivation o Alogia – decrease in amount of words a person says o Anhedonia – loss of pleasure Schizophrenia or cultural bound syndromes? “Amafufuyana” and “Ukuthwasa” are two culture specific descriptive terms used by Xhosa traditional healers. o Some overlap between these conditions and the DSM formulation of schizophrenia has been noted. They are not yet included in the DSM as culture bound syndromes but they are nonetheless considered to be cultural phenomena and found in the indigenous African Xhosa population. Cultural concepts, values and beliefs influence health seeking pathways, and traditional healers play an important role in the management of disease in many cultures where ‘Western’ medicine is either not available, viewed with skepticism or used in parallel with traditional treatment methods (Niehaus et al., 2004). It might be valuable to understand when and why models such as amafufunyana and ukuthwasa are applied. Amafufuyana Originally described as a hysterical condition characterized by people speaking in a strange muffled voice in a language that couldn't be understood as well as strange and unpredictable behaviour. The existing case descriptions, mostly of girls and young women, include additional symptoms such as undressing (tearing off clothes), aggressive behaviour and psychomotor agitation (Niehaus et al., 2004). This state is believed to be induced by sorcery that has led to possession by multiple spirits that may then speak through the individual (speaking in tongues, speaking through stomachs).  Terminology alogia: a common symptom associated with schizophrenia involving a speech disturbance in which the individual talks very little and gives brief empty replies to questions anti-psychiatry: a sociopolitical movement that rejects the methodologies, medical practices and underlying assumptions of psychiatry avolition: a common symptom associated with schizophrenia involving the inability to begin and sustain goal-directed activity behaviour therapy: a means of treating patients that seeks to change the factors in the environment that tend to reinforce maladaptive behaviours biomedical model: a perspective in psychopathology that claims that all mental illnesses have a biological cause bio-psychosocial approach: a perspective in psychopathology that attempts to integrate biological, psychological and social factors to gain a better understanding of why mental disorders occur catatonic behaviour: a common symptom associated with schizophrenia involving marked motor abnormalities such as bizarre postures, purposeless repetitive movements and an extreme degree of unawareness cognitive-behaviour perspective: a perspective in psychopathology that has as its central notion the idea that cognitions, or learned ways of thinking, directly impact on the individual’s emotions and behaviours delusions: a common symptom associated with schizophrenia involving fixed ideas or false beliefs that do not have any foundation in reality dementia: a disorder found in the DSM-5 that refers to disturbances of consciousness and cognitive ability denial: a psychological defence mechanism whereby individuals refuse to acknowledge what has happened, is happening, or will happen diathesis–stress model: a perspective in psychopathology that proposes that some people inherit or develop predispositions (diathesis) to psychopathology, although mental disorders will not emerge until stressors become intense enough to convert predispositions into actual psychological disorders disorganised behaviour: a common symptom associated with schizophrenia involving both an inability to persist in goal-directed activity and the performance of inappropriate behaviours in public disorganised speech: a common symptom associated with schizophrenia where speech is incomprehensible and only remotely related to the subject under discussion  displacement: a psychological defence mechanism whereby individuals displace unwelcome feelings onto other individuals flat affect: a common symptom associated with schizophrenia involving the lack of emotional responsiveness in gesture, facial expression and/or tone of voice hallucinations: a common symptom associated with schizophrenia involving false sensory perceptions that occur in the absence of a related sensory stimulus intellectualisation: a psychological defence mechanism whereby individuals remove all emotion from their emotional experiences maladaptiveness: one way of defining psychopathology that, in order to determine what is abnormal, uses the extent to which certain behaviours or experiences are maladaptive to the self or others neurotransmitters: chemical substances in the brain that are responsible for the communication of nerve impulses amongst the brain cells personal distress: unbearable negative thoughts projection: a psychological defence mechanism whereby individuals take something of themselves and place it outside of themselves, onto others psychoanalysis: a means of treating patients who suffer from hysterical and neurotic conditions based on Freud’s theory that psychopathology is largely caused by the repression of forbidden wishes or instinctual drives psychodynamic perspectives: approaches to psychopathology that believe that the way we relate to others and ourselves is largely influenced by internal forces that exist outside of consciousness reaction formation: a psychological defence mechanism whereby individuals turn painful or threatening reactions into their opposite repression: a psychological defence mechanism whereby individuals unconsciously put painful thoughts and memories out of their minds schizophrenia: a disorder found in the DSM-5 characterised by disorganised and fragmented emotions, behaviours and cognitions statistical deviance: one way of defining psychopathology that uses statistical norms of behaviour and experience to determine what is supposedly normal, and therefore what is abnormal sublimation: a psychological defence mechanism whereby individuals redirect emotions into more positive activities substance abuse: a disorder found in the DSM-5 that refers to a maladaptive pattern of substance use suppression: a psychological defence mechanism whereby individuals consciously try to put painful thoughts and memories out of their minds  Weekly quiz 1.It has been said that not all deviant behaviour is maladaptive, but all maladaptive behaviour is deviant. What does this statement NOT imply? A. Dysfunctional behaviour is not acceptable according to societal standards. B. Maladaptive behaviour and deviant behaviour can overlap but this is not always the case. C. Maladaptive behaviour and deviant behaviour can be considered abnormal behaviour. D. Deviant behaviour is dependent on societal norms and is not necessarily dysfunctional. 2.A mental disorder is a syndrome characterized by clinically significant disturbance in an individual’s… A. Cognition B. Emotion regulation C. Behaviour D. Options a, b and c 3.Dr Khumalo believes that psychological disorders can be diagnosed and treated just like physical illnesses. Dr Khumalo’s views reflect the point of view suggested by A. The deviance model of abnormal behaviour B. The behavioural model of abnormal behaviour C. The medical model of abnormal behaviour D. The psychodynamic model of abnormal behaviour. 4.People predominantly