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Questions and Answers
Which cognitive strategy shows greater use in adolescents compared to children?
What aspect of Theory of Mind is more challenging for adolescents compared to cognitive tasks?
In perspective-taking abilities, how do adolescents compare to adults when performing 3rd-person judgments?
What is the basis of moral reasoning at the Postconventional Level according to Kohlberg?
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In the Maxi task, where does Maxi expect to find the chocolate when he returns indoors?
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What typically happens to the quality of student-teacher relationships from middle childhood onwards?
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What is the effect of a high level of teacher control on student performance?
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Which factor can provide instrumental guidance in a child's academic success?
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How does poverty in neighborhoods typically affect adolescents?
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Experimental studies suggest that moving families to better neighborhoods can lead to positive outcomes in which of the following areas?
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What is a significant impact of artificial light on sleep?
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What change has been suggested regarding school start times?
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What is one factor that contributes to greater sleep deprivation in certain cultures, such as Asia?
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Which demographic is most likely to experience substance abuse problems during adolescence?
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How does alcohol prevention through family-based interventions compare to large group programs?
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What mental changes accompany the structural and functional changes in the brain during development?
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What is one major behavioral outcome of early pubertal timing?
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What is a common characteristic of adolescent experimenters with substances?
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What is the primary benefit of being associated with a crowd during adolescence?
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Which of the following is a key aspect of adolescent friendships?
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How do girls typically approach friendships during adolescence?
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What trend has been observed in bullying behaviors during adolescence?
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What age range is typically considered as emergent adulthood?
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Which of the following is NOT one of the five markers of emergent adulthood according to Jeffrey Arnett?
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Which of the following cascading risks is associated with low self-esteem in adolescents?
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How do low socioeconomic status (SES) students differ from high SES students in emergent adulthood?
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What type of attachment is linked with positive social behaviors in adolescents?
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What characterizes Europe's approach to emergent adulthood compared to the United States?
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What aspect of brain development peaks around the ages of 12-14 before starting to decline?
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What kind of behavior is typically more prevalent in boys during their adolescent friendships?
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Which of the following statements best describes how perceptions of body image affect health outcomes?
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What is a common physical change that marks the onset of puberty?
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What is a common misconception about emergent adulthood?
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What does dyssynchrony refer to in the context of adolescent brain development?
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In which aspect does emergent adulthood differ between Western and many Asian cultures?
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What is the primary focus of individuals in the age of self-focus during emergent adulthood?
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Which factor does NOT influence the timing of puberty in adolescents?
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What change is observed in adolescent brains in response to large potential rewards?
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What is a possible positive outcome of effective anti-bullying programs?
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Which aspect contributes to the development of a reciprocal cascading pathway between depression and self-esteem?
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Study Notes
Changes to Metacognition
- Adolescents become more aware of the limitations of their memory and knowledge, leading them to use memory strategies more often
- Greater use of memory strategies in adolescents compared to children
Social Cognition: Perspective Taking
- Adolescents show improved ability to take the perspective of others
- Adolescents perform better on first- and second-order Theory of Mind tasks
- Adolescents show a decrease in reaction time difference between first- and third-person questions on Point of View tasks
- Affective Theory of Mind proves more difficult than cognitive Theory of Mind
Theory of Mind
- The Maxi Task is a commonly used Theory of Mind task that assesses cognitive understanding of beliefs
- Maxi Task involves a false belief scenario: Maxi looks for chocolate in the wrong cupboard
- Adolescents are faster at solving the Maxi Task than children but slower than adults
- Adults are equally quick in making both first- and third-person judgements
- Adolescents take longer to make third-person judgements compared to first-person judgements
Moral Development
- Kohlberg's theory states that at the Postconventional level of moral development, reasoning is based on personal values rather than conventional standards or authority figures
School Context
- There is a typical decline in the quality of student-teacher relationships during middle childhood
- Perceptions of teacher support are linked to higher student performance
- High levels of teacher control may have negative consequences
Stereotype Threat
- Stereotype threat occurs when individuals from a stereotyped group fear confirming negative beliefs about their social group
- This can lead to anxiety and lowered performance
- Experiments demonstrate the effects of stereotype threat on performance by manipulating the presence or absence of threat
Family & Peer Context
Parenting Context
- Emotionally supportive parents have a positive influence on their children's academic success
- Instrumental guidance and practical help (e.g., with applications) from parents also contribute to academic success
Peer Context
- Peers can assist each other with schoolwork
- Peers tend to be similar, which can lead to both positive and negative influences on academics
Impacts of Poverty
- Poverty-ridden neighborhoods are associated with negative adolescent outcomes
- Experimental studies show that relocating families to better neighborhoods through housing vouchers has positive effects on:
- Taking advanced high school classes
- Graduation rates
- College attendance
- Reduced single parenthood
Neighborhood Factors
- Neighborhoods with poverty have schools that often have lower teacher qualifications, higher teacher turnover, and other factors that contribute to lower academic outcomes
Peer Relationships
- The nature of friendships changes from childhood to adolescence
- Friendships in adolescence are characterized by:
- Greater compatibility
- Increased stability
- Reciprocity
- Respect for individuality
Gender Differences in Adolescent Friendships
Girls
- Focus on emotional closeness
- Emphasis on communal concerns
- Preference for "just talking"
- High levels of self-disclosure and emotional support
- Greater tendency towards relational aggression
Boys
- Focus on shared activities
- Emphasis on achievement and status
- Higher levels of competition and conflict
- Driven by autonomy
- Higher levels of physical aggression
Bullying Changes
- Physical and verbal aggression decrease in adolescence
- Relational aggression and cyberbullying increase
Social Media
-
Social media can offer benefits, including:
- Emotional connection
- Prosocial interactions
- Support for those experiencing geographic or social isolation
-
Social media can also present risks, including:
- Overuse
- Misuse (e.g., disclosing too much personal information)
- Online harassment
- Unwanted exposure to explicit material
Cascades
Cascades: Depression and Self-Esteem
- Depression in adolescence is linked to poor social relationships, behavioral problems, and further mental health issues, impacting education, economic well-being, and physical health
- Low self-esteem in adolescence can lead to aggression, social withdrawal, negative relationships, substance use, unemployment, physical health problems, and insomnia
- Longitudinal research shows a reciprocal relationship between depression and self-esteem: low self-esteem in adolescence predicts depression in young adulthood, and low self-esteem during adolescence predicts depression two decades later
Cascades: Relationships with Parents
- Secure attachment in childhood is linked to positive adolescent outcomes:
- High prosocial behavior towards peers
- Low aggression
- Security in romantic relationships
- View others as trustworthy and themselves as loved
- Insecure attachment leads to the opposite patterns
Cascades: Relationships with Peers
-
Social isolation in adolescence can lead to substance use
-
Victimization and bullying have psychological and health consequences, including:
- Low self-esteem
- Feelings of powerlessness
- Social anxiety
- Depression
- Suicidal attempts
- Sleep problems
- Somatic symptoms
- Substance use
- Disengagement from school
-
Positive cascades can occur to counteract negative cascades:
- Continued positive experiences and influences can buffer negative impacts
- Developmental trajectories are multi-determined and not solely influenced by a single factor
Adolescent Physical Development
Brain Changes
-
Gray matter:
- Increases across childhood
- Peaks at 12-14 years old, then declines
- Peaks 1-2 years earlier for girls
-
White matter:
- Increases steadily throughout childhood and adolescence
- Levels off in late twenties
Brain Asymmetry: Risk Taking
- Teen brains show more limbic system activity than adult brains during gambling tasks
- Adolescent brains are highly reactive to large rewards
- Adolescent brains are less responsive to negative consequences
Brain Asymmetry: Dyssynchrony
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Age 11: Parietal lobe (sensory information)
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Age 16-17: Temporal lobes and cerebellum (memory, vision, and auditory processing)
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Age 25: Prefrontal cortex (planning, higher-order functions)
-
Brain development involves reorganization, efficiency, and experience
Puberty
- Average age of first menstruation: 12-12.5 years
- Individual differences in pubertal timing are influenced by:
- Nutrition
- Body size
- Genetics
- Race
- Family environment
- Socioeconomic status
- Historical timing
Sleep Debt: Impacts of Technology
- Access to artificial light has impacted sleep patterns
- Sleep debt is not easily made up
- Poor quality of sleep
- Problems falling asleep
- Insomnia
- Bruxism (teeth grinding)
Contexts of Sleep
- Technology context: greater access to artificial light
- School context: mismatch between school start times and teen circadian rhythm
- Cultural context: sleep deprivation is a common problem in teens but varies across cultures
Sleep and Academics
- Each hour of increased sleep in adolescents leads to improved academic scores, particularly for those with weaker academic abilities
Alcohol and Drug Use
- In Canada, two-thirds of teens use alcohol
- Average age of first drink: 13
- Average age of intoxication: 14
- More than 80% of teens in grade 12 drink
- One-third of teens use marijuana
- Average age of first drug use: 15.7
- One in 20 try LSD, ecstasy, or cocaine
Substance Use in Adolescence
-
Experimenters:
- Psychologically healthy
- Sociable
- Sensation-seeking
-
Abusers:
- Low socioeconomic status
- Mental health problems within the home
- Substance abuse within the home
- Child abuse
- Impulsivity, poor self-regulation
- Hostility
- Earlier onset of drug use
Alcohol and Drug Prevention
- Programs targeting large groups of teens are less effective than smaller, interactive programs focusing on school and community settings
- Family-focused interventions can be beneficial
- Raising the legal age and restricting availability can help reduce adolescent alcohol use
Developmental Cascades
Cascades from Brain Development
- Brain changes support memory, planning, reasoning, and perspective-taking
- Experience interacts with brain development
- Brain asymmetry (limbic system dominance) may contribute to adolescent risk-taking behavior
Cascades from Pubertal Timing
- Early pubertal timing is linked to:
- Increased risk for sexual activity at younger ages
- Increased risk for substance use
Cascades from Overweight and Obesity
- Overweight and obesity can lead to health problems like diabetes
- These health problems can have negative impacts on mental health and economic well-being
- Perceptions of body image matter more than actual weight for mental health and well-being
Emergent Adulthood
- Emergent adulthood is a distinct developmental stage between adolescence and young adulthood, typically ranging from ages 18-25.
- It is characterized by:
- Identity exploration
- Instability
- Self-focus
- Feeling in-between
- Age of possibilities
Socioeconomic Variation
- Emergent adulthood may be more prevalent among upper middle-class individuals, but research suggests similar experiences across socioeconomic levels
- Low-SES students report lower emotional health ratings and less financial support for education
Cultural Variation
- Emergent adulthood is a relatively new concept, primarily based on research in the United States.
- Similar experiences are observed in other industrialized countries, with similarities in post-secondary education rates, age of marriage, and age of parenthood
Cultural Differences
- Europe: Emergent adulthood is considered lengthy and leisurely, supported by affluent societies, government programs, and strong social support networks
- Asia: Countries like Japan and South Korea may shorten emergent adulthood due to collectivist norms, obligations to family, and the need to establish financial independence to support parents
When Does Adulthood Begin?
- The commencement of adulthood can differ depending on cultural factors, personal goals, and markers of independence.
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Description
This quiz explores the cognitive development of adolescents, focusing on metacognition and their ability to understand perspectives. Key concepts include memory strategies, Theory of Mind tasks, and improvements seen from childhood to adulthood. Test your knowledge on how these cognitive processes evolve during adolescence.
