Observational Methods Ch. 6 PDF

Observational methods ch.6: Nov.26 Observational techniques are used to generate hypotheses for further research and to provide in-depth descriptions of phenomena. Both in experimental and non-experimental designs. What is systematic observation? Required to understand real world phenomena. But...

Observational methods ch.6: Nov.26 Observational techniques are used to generate hypotheses for further research and to provide in-depth descriptions of phenomena. Both in experimental and non-experimental designs. What is systematic observation? Required to understand real world phenomena. But need to indicate which approach to take; quantitative or qualitative approach. Quantitative approach = results with numerical data. ▪ Predictions ▪ Hypothesis ▪ Broad ideas ▪ generalizable Ex: self-report surveys, reaction time Qualitative approach = non-numerical data descriptive behavior in natural settings. ▪ Interpretation ▪ rarely hypothesis ▪ Limit to specific context ▪ Small sampling Ex: ps explain their emotions towards a situation Coding of qualitative methods: One approach does not need to be exclusive. Qualitative data can be coded into quantitative data. When? Systematic observation o Counting frequency of a behavior Content analysis o Counting frequency of specific words Non-experimental designs: Naturalistic observation Systematic observation Case studies Archival research Naturalistic observation: What? Researchers immerses self in natural setting to collect data over time. Purpose? Accurately record, describes and interpret experiences in a particular setting. How? Observe people and events Interview key informants Examine relevant documents Issues: Depends on whether you are an observer or participant. Observer issues: 1. Bias 2. Participation and concealment – balance trust and ps reactivity a. Concealed observation may have ethical issues b. Non-concealed observation may not be honest  Ex: living in the amazon to observe living of the Amazonian 3. Scope of observation must be defined 4. Limits of observation Advantages of naturalistic observation: Generating hypothesis for controlled studies High ecological validity Disadvantages for naturalistic observation: Reactivity vs. Ethics – is it ethical to observe while concealing Large amount of data Time consuming Can’t test hypotheses or predictions Can’t generalize to other contexts Systematic observation: What? Observing specific categories of behaviour. Purpose? Generating hypothesis for future controlled studies. Can also test hypotheses. May have high ecological validity How? Observe in relevant setting/situation then code behaviour in specific categories. Issues in systematic observation: 1. Inter-rater reliability 2. Participant reactivity – behave differently when being observed 3. Sampling behaviours 4. Generalize to other contexts 5. Time consuming Coding schemes: 1. Decide which behaviours are of interest.  2. Create specific setting for behaviours to be observed. 3. Record and categorize observations Purpose: Quantify qualitative observations. Be able to fit the needs of a particular study. Features: Simple as possible o Simplicity best for observing things that cannot be paused and re- observed (ex: video) **video taping observations is recommended **Process of coding very complex Case studies: What? Intense study of a single person. Purpose? To generate hypotheses for later controlled studies. Can illustrate a possibility that may be unbelievable/unusual. Cannot do: Cannot support a theory Problem: Used often in the media incorrectly Features: Case studies often include methods as such: ▪ Naturalistic observation ▪ Archival method ▪ Singe-case quasi-experiments  ▪ Interviews Example: 1. Memory- Luria’s “S” case study: An unusual high memory due to synesthesia. Synesthesia is the mixture of sensations in which all senses activated to external cues. (When eating food taste is activated but vision is also activated so a also activate so a food) 2. H.M most studied: loss of retro-anterograde memory. Unable to form memories. What are testimonials? Cases that prove something is possible and are a good start for further study. It is not enough to conclude some theory. Analyzing text: 1. Discourse analysis: find meaning/themes within text. What is a discourse? A social practice that constitutes our social relations. a. Not used in psychology i. Time consuming ii. Small texts iii. Quality over quantity Discourse analysts: seek to understand how language shapes our beliefs, experiences, interactions & identities. Ex: Professor say “good morning”. He means lecture is about to start please be quiet. 2. Content analysis: counting frequency of words for symbols. a. May use in psychology Ex: study revealed that people who use more words of anger have higher rate of dying by a heart attack. Interviews: 1. Quantitative: one-on-one asking questions from a fixed source. a. Close ended b. Highly structured c. In-person questionaire **can ensure participant answering questions correctly and clarify 2. Qualitative: based on open-ended questions. Purpose: gain an insider’s perspective. Understands a lived experience from the participant. The language and meanings that they use to make sense of their point of view within a specific context. a. Unstructured 3. Semi-unstructured: prepared questions that do not need to be as structured. o Questions can be removed or added o Words are flexible o Organic conversation o Can make clarification Archival research: What? Use of previously collected information to answer research questions. Ex: articles, statistics, census data Difference: Don’t collect original data Can use other researchers’ data The type of data extracted differs, qualitative or quantitative research? A. Qualitative: identifying common themes B. Quantitative: analyzing numerical data statistically Three sources of archival research data: Census data or statistical records: Statistical records collected from private and public organizations (ex: government websites). Public records accessible to all for analysis. Survey archives: Publicly available survey data. Written records and mass media: Stored documents preserved by historical societies. Ex: diaries, speeches by politicians… Mass media: any cultural product that is archived. (Movies, newspapers & magazines) Content analysis and interpretation: Content analysis = analysis of existing archives systematically (ex: movies, tv shows…) How? Must have a coding scheme What is a coding scheme? Definition/ codes to quantify information Coding scheme: Could be easy/complex Must teach raters how to use it Inter-rater reliability measured to ensure high agreement between data of all raters Software solutions aid with content analysis (ex: how many times a word is repeated) Advantages of archival data: Study interesting questions  Hypotheses can be tested New hypotheses can be generated Higher generalizability- valuable supplement to more traditional data collection methods Disadvantages of archival data: Hard to find records Accuracy unknown – did not collect the data Casual claims unable – non-experimental designs have alternative explanations Focus groups: What: type of observational methods. 6-10 participants Conducted by a moderator Duration 90 min-120 Purpose: focus group to exchange ideas, experiences and feelings in a specific topic. Advantages: More freedom to observe Leads to topics not have been raised in an interview How conducted? Audio/video recorded Transcribed Transcription analyzed by discourse/content analysis Key moderator skills: Concern for ps’s welfare Strong observational skills (different personalities…) Control/guide group discussion (ensure quieter person to speak as well)  Awareness of own biases (suppress personal views) Advantages of interview and focus group: Understanding experiences Create hypothesis for later controlled studies Insight for future research Disadvantages of interviews and focus group: Researcher bias Findings not generalized