Observational Research Methods Overview

Observational Methods

• Observational techniques generate hypotheses and provide in-depth descriptions of phenomena, both in experiments and non-experiments.
• Systematic observation requires understanding real-world phenomena, using either quantitative or qualitative approaches.

Quantitative Approach

• Results in numerical data.
• Includes predictions, hypotheses, broad ideas, and generalizable information.
• Examples include self-report surveys and reaction time.

Qualitative Approach

• Uses non-numerical data to describe behavior in natural settings.
• Includes interpretation, rarely uses hypotheses, limits to specific contexts, and small samples.
• Example: people explaining their emotions in a situation.

Qualitative Research Methods

• Includes history, English, languages, counseling psychology, and philosophy.
• Qualitative research fields such as Psychology, Biology, Chemistry, Physics, Economics, Math, etc., can also be involved.
• Case studies are detailed studies of a single subject to generate hypotheses for later controlled studies; they show possibilities that may not be obvious. Case studies cannot formulate a complete theory but can show the possibilities of a phenomenon.
• Naturalistic observation involves immersion in natural settings to gather data over time; the goal is to document, describe and interpret behaviors in a specific setting.
• Archival research utilizes previously collected information (e.g., articles, census data) to address research questions. It does not collect new data.

Coding Qualitative Methods

• Qualitative data CAN be coded into quantitative data.
• Methods include:
  • Systematic observation
  • Counting frequencies of behavior
  • Content analysis (counting specific words)

Non-experimental Designs

• Includes naturalistic observation, systematic observation, case studies, and archival research.

Naturalistic Observation

• Researchers immerse themselves in natural settings to document and understand behaviors (over time).
• Includes:
  • Observing people and events
  • Interviewing key informants
  • Examining relevant documents
• Observer bias and ethical issues (e.g., concealed vs. non-concealed observation) are relevant considerations.

Systematic Observation

• Focuses on observing specific behaviors in a defined setting.
• Requires a coding scheme for categorizing behaviors, increasing inter-rater reliability (consistency among observers).
• Includes issues such as participant reactivity, generalizability to other contexts, and time constraints.

Case Studies

• Intense, detailed study of a single individual.
• Can be used to generate hypotheses for later controlled studies, but cannot support a comprehensive theory.
• Often used in situations to illustrate unusual behavior/phenomena.
  • Case studies may be used frequently in media portrayals inaccurately.

Analyzing Text

• Discourse Analysis: Investigates how language shapes social interactions and meanings. It is time-consuming and best used with small amounts of text. The focus is more on quality over quantity of text.
• Content Analysis: Employs quantitative methods to analyze text by counting word frequencies, examining symbols and themes within social relations.

Interviews

• Quantitative Interviews: Use close-ended, structured questions, relying on questionnaires. They can ensure clarity and consistency in data collection.
• Qualitative Interviews: Employ open-ended questions to gain an understanding of a participant's experiences and perspectives. This aims to understand the meaning behind the language used by a participant in a specific context.
• Semi-structured Interviews: Prepared questions with flexibility for follow-up and clarification.

Focus Groups

• Groups of 6–10 participants discussing a specific topic.
• Led by a moderator.
• Audio/video recorded and transcribed for analysis (often using discourse/content analysis).

Archival Research

• Uses existing data (e.g., census data, historical documents).
• Provides valuable data but cannot provide conclusive causality. In other words, it is not capable of showing a cause and effect.
• Types of archival data include census data, survey archives, and written records/mass media (newspapers, diaries, movies, etc.)

Advantages/Disadvantages

• Advantages of Specific Methods: The text highlights advantages and disadvantages of various methods (e.g., naturalistic observation, archival analysis, focus groups, interviews). Consider the specific pros and cons of each given context.
• General Observations: Methods have strengths and weaknesses. For example, some methods are better for generating hypotheses, while others are ideal for generating ideas and gaining direct insight from participants.