Psyc 375: Chapter 1 Textbook Notes PDF

lOMoARcPSD|37523509 Psyc 375: Chapter 1 Textbook Notes History of Psychology (Athabasca University) Scan to open on Studocu Studocu is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university Downloaded by JENESAH HANKE ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|37523509 Chapter 1 Notes Problems in Writing a...

lOMoARcPSD|37523509 Psyc 375: Chapter 1 Textbook Notes History of Psychology (Athabasca University) Scan to open on Studocu Studocu is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university Downloaded by JENESAH HANKE ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|37523509 Chapter 1 Notes Problems in Writing a History of Psychology Means the study of the psyche or the mind ○ Study is as old as the human species ○ Or did it start with the first systematic explanation of human cognitive experience? Proposed by Plato and Aristotle ○ Or did it start when it emerged as a science in germany in the late 19th century? What to include ○ Presentism: looking at the way we understand something today and showing the history of how it became that way Understands the past in terms of contemporary knowledge and standards, canot be completely avoided Limits personal bias This textbook uses presentism- this is the purpose of the course ○ Historicism: Study of the past for its own sake without attempting to relate the past and the present. An idea is rarely ever solely created by a person, but is inspired by another idea- History is then a stream of unending events Great individuals are those that synthesize existing nebulous ideas into focus. ○ We have to pick and choose the most important individuals for times sack even though it doesnt do justice to many influential individuals. Textbook will use a chronological approach. Zeitgeist Approach- A spirit of the times. Developments in other sciences, the political climate, technological advancement and socioeconomic conditions. ○ E.G. Boring, president of the American Psychological Association stresse dthis approach. Ideas will not stick if the climate is not ready for them. ○ New ideas are judged in the context of old ideas Great-Person Approach- Ephasize the works of key individuals Historical Development Approach- Shows how various individuals or events contributes to changes in an idea or a concept through the years. ○ This textbook takes and eclectic approach between all of Downloaded by JENESAH HANKE ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|37523509 these. Use whatever method seems best able to illuminate an aspect of the history of psychology Why study the History of Psychology? Allows students to appreciate modern psychology Seeing the time it took to solve these problems is humbling Also ○ Understanding “ Those who cannot remember the past are condemned to repeat it”- George Santayana Better understanding of current psychology ○ Recognition of Fads and Fashions A Theories fade, not because they are wrong, but because they become unpopular Psychology went from “Pure Science”, to survival and adaptation, to cognitive processes. Gordon Allport “We never seem to solve our problems, just grow tired of them” Students have stopped citing old works ○ A source of Valuable ideas Reuse ideas of the past that were not accepted back then. It can take many times for an idea to be proposed before it sticks. What is Science? Came into existence as a way of answering questions about nature by examining nature directly rather than relying on church dogma. Empirical evidence: Direct observation of nature More to science than just empirical evidence ○ Observations must be categorized by similarity or difference ○ Science is thought of as having two major componentes Empirical observation and theory Making observations and seeking explanations A combinations of Rationalism and Empiricism ○ Rationalism: The validity or invalidity of certain propositions can often best be determined by carefully applying the rules of logic Prevents science from dolecting an endless array of disconnected empirical facts ○ Empiricism: The source of knowledge is always based on sensory observation Science draws on both of these positions ○ Scientific Theory Two main functions: Organizes empirical observations Acts as a guide for future observations ○ Generates Confirmable Propositions-If the propositions of a theory are confirmed, theory Downloaded by JENESAH HANKE ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|37523509 gains strength Must be testable A search for Laws ○ Scientific Law: consistently observed relationship between two or more classes of empirical events. Stresses the general case rather than a particular case Is amenable to public observation Must be verifiable by any interested person No secret knowledge available to only qualified authorities. ○ Two classes of scientific laws Correlational Laws Describe how classes of events vary together in some systematic way Only allows prediction Causal Laws Specify how event are causually related Allow prediction AND control More powerful The Assumption of determinism ○ Science assumes that what is being investigated is lawful ○ Determinism: the philosophical doctrine that states that for everything that ever happens there are conditions such that, given them, nothing else could happen Everything that ever happens is because of a finite number of causes. If known, the event could be predicted with complete accuracy. As more causes are known, the better we can predict. All sciences assume determinism Karl Popper ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ Disagreed with traditional description of science in two ways Did not beleive that scientific activity starts with empirical observation Needs a subject to observe first; A problem Scientific method involves three stages Problems, theories and criticisms. The demarcation criterion that distinguishes a scientific theory from a non-scientific theory is the principle of falsifiability Must be refutable A scientific theory must make Risky predictions-Predictions that run a real risk of being incorrect Theories that explain phenomena after they have happened are not scientific. This is called It is the incorrect predictions that cause scientific progress Believes that all scientific theories will eventually be found to be false and will be replaced with new theories. Highest status of a theory is “not yet disconfirmed” Many useful theories of psychology fail Poppers test of falsibility Downloaded by JENESAH HANKE ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|37523509 May not be scientific, but they are useful Thomus Kuhn ○ Correspondence theory of truth: The notions that the goal, when evaluating scientific laws or theories, is to determine whether or not they correspond to an external, mind-independent, world ○ Paradigms and normal science Paradigm- widely accepted view point, or shared common set of assumptions. The entire constellation of beliefs, values, techniques, and so on shared by the members of a given community Normal Science- Exploring the implications of a paradigm. Puzzle Solving- The problems of normal science have an assured solution, and there are rules that limit both the nature of acceptabl solutions ans the steps by which tht are to be obtained. Neither puzzle solving, nor normal science involve much creativity. Major Research does not aim to produce major novelties, conceptual or phenomenal One negative is tht it blinds researcher to other phenomena and perhaps better explanations for what they are studying A paradigm determines what constitutes a research problem and how the solution to that problem is sought. It guids all of the researchers activities. ○ How Sciences Change Anomalies- Persistent observations that a currently accepted paradigm cannot explain. Then someone will propose an alternative viewpoint that will account for the phenomena. Of the paradigm plus the anomaly. ○ Lots of resistance ot new paradigms. Science is a method of inquiry that combines the objective scientific method and the emotional makeup of the scientist. ○ The stages of Scientific development. Preparadigmatic Stage number of computing view points exist, randon fact gathering from rival camps until one wns and becomes a paradigm Paradigmatic Stage Normal science and puzzle solving occurs. Revolutionary Stage An existing paradigm is replaced by a new paradigm. Paradigms and Psychology ○ Some say psychology is a preparadigmatic discipline Different camps labeled behavioristic, cognitive, psychoanalytic, and evolutionary ○ Other say it is simply a different type of science Downloaded by JENESAH HANKE ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|37523509 There is no need for a Kuhnian type of revolution in psychology It may even be healthy for there to be so many paradigms available. Popper Vs Kuhn ○ Major point of concern is Kuhn’s normal science. Popper does not think that this is science at all and scientific problems are not like puzzles because there are no restrictions. ○ To popper, scientific problem solving is highly creative and imaginative. ○ For Kuhn, science cannot be understood without considering psychological and sociological factors. No such things as Neutral scientific observation ○ Can think about the disagreement between the two as Kuhn talks about what science has been, where as popper discusses how it ought to be. ○ Popper beleived that there are truths about the physical world that science can approximate, but Kuhn rejects this theory and says that the paradigm selected by a group creates a reality. ○ Others say that any attempt to characterize the nature of “science” is misguided No one scientific method or princilpe and any description of science must focus on the creativity and determination of individual scientists. Paul Feyerabend ○ Followed no prescribed set of rules. Said that whatever rules do exist must be broken in order for science to progress ○ Nobody knows exactly what it was that led to progress in the past or what will lead to progress in the future Is psychology a Science? Scientific methode has been used with success in psychology ○ Lawful relationships between stimuli and behavior ○ Psychologists work with scientists from a variety of different fields. ○ Some psychologists are scientists, while others are not Determinism ○ Believe that all behavior is caused ○ Different types of Determinism Biological determinism Genetic dispositions causes behavior Environmental Determinism Environmental stimuli causes behavior Sociocultural determinism Cultural and societal rules and regulations shape behavior. Norms play a large part of this When a behavior is predictable and controllable, we are able to claim that a cause of behavior has been found Downloaded by JENESAH HANKE ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|37523509 Typically not caused by a single event or even a few variables. All of the variables interact. Albert Bandura also says that chance encounters play a prominent role in shaping the course of human lives. ○ Fortuitious circumstances do not violate deterministic analysis of behavior; they just make it more common. Biological, Environmental and sociocultural determinisms are all forms of Physical determinism because these are all quantifiable. A person’s beliefs, emotions, sensations, perceptions, ideas, values, and goals fall under psychical determinism. Uncertainty Principle: human behavior is determined but that the causes of behavior cannot be accurately measured. Heisenberg: the very act of observing an electron influences its activity. Said that nothing can ever be certain with science. Psychologists that agree with this have a position of indeterminism. Kant questioned the science of psychology as a whole. The most important causes of behavior are self generated and freely chosen. Called Free Will These psychologists are non-scientific. Position is known as nondeterminism. Personal Responsibility ○ Free will leads to a belief in personal responsibility, but so does one version of psychical determinism. William James: Hard determinism VS soft determinism. Hard determinism: Causes of human behavior are thought to function in an automatic, mechanistic manner. Makes personal responsibility meaningless Soft determinism: cognitive processes such as intentions, motives, beleifs intervene between experience and behavior. Thoughtful deliberation makes personal responsibility meaningful. ○ Is the compromise between hard determinism and free will. ○ Psychology being a science depends on which aspect of psychology we focus on. “Psychology is not a single discipline, but a collection of studies. Some are considered a science while others are not.” Koch” Koch argued that psychology should embrace both science and the humanities in its effort to understand humans. We don’t need to judge psychology harshly because Downloaded by JENESAH HANKE ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|37523509 some aspects are not scientic because science as we see it is very new, but we have gained a lot in the past from philosophy and theologically. Some areas jsut aren’t developed enough for science. Persistent Questions in Psychology ○ Is human behavior freely chosen or is it determined? ○ How much of our animal heritage remains in human nature? Depends on the psychological view you use to look at the question. Mind and Body Materialists: Attempt to explain everything in physical terms. Mental events are just physics and chemistry. ○ Matter is the only reality ○ Also called monists: attempt to explaine verything in terms of one type of reality-matter. Idealists: explain everything in terms of consciousness. ○ Also Monists Dualists: Explain things through both physical and mental events. Types of Dualists. ○ Interactionism: claims that the body and mind interact The mind is capable of initiating behavior Descartes, Freud Many body ailments are psychogenic ○ Emergentism: mental states emerge from physical brain states. Properties such as wettness, boiling point and density emerge from the combination of hydrogen and oxygen to create water. One theory is that once mental events occur, they can then influence other brain activity. Represents interactionism. Another theory is epiphenomenalism: the brain cause mental events, but mental events cannot cause behavior. Mental events are simply byproducts of brain processes, but they have no influence. ○ Psychophysical parrallelism: environmental experience causes both mental events and Downloaded by JENESAH HANKE ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|37523509 bodily responses simultaneously, but the two are independant of one another. ○ Double Aspectism: A person cannot be diveded into a mind and a body. But is a unity that simultaneously experiences events physically and mentally. Eg. Two sides of the same coin ○ Preestablished Harmony: Two types of events are diffeent and seperate, but are coordinated by some external agent, Eg. God Person has a desire to move an arm, god knows this desire and moves the arm for them. An occasion for God to act- Then called Occasionalism Mechanism VS Vitalism ○ Is human behavior completely expicable in terms of mechanical laws? Mechanism: Human behavior can be explained the way any machine can be. Vitalism: Life can never be reduced to material and mechanical laws. People contain come sort of soul. Objective Vs Subjective Reality Naive Realism: What we experience mentally is the same as is what is happening physically ○ However, most people say that something is lost of gained in translation at a variety of points btween the expereience and how the experience is percieved. Reification: The tendancy to to beleive that becuase something has a name, it has an independant existence. Rationalism VS Irrationalism Rationalists search for universal principles that govern events in the empirical world. ○ Some equated wisdom with virtue. If you know the truth, you will act in accordance with it. ○ Western philosophy and psychology has glorified intellect at the expense of emotional experience. Irrational perspectives are those that stress emotional experience over human reasoning. This is called irrationalism. ○ Freud and Jung. Nature VS Nurture Nativist: Emphasizes the role of inheritance (nature) in Downloaded by JENESAH HANKE ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|37523509 their explanation of origins. Empiricists emphasize the role of experience (Nurture) ○ Almost all psychologists today beleive in a bit of both. What is the origin of Human Knowledge? ○ Epistemology: The study of knowledge. ○ How do people gain information about themselves and their world? Rationalists agree that sensory informaiton is almost always the first step in learning. The mind must then actively process this information. Passive mind: records physical expereiences as mental images, recollections and associations. Sometimes there is a pattern and we will pick up on that. Active mind: interacts with the data from experience and transforms it. This is where it is pondered, organized and understood. For rationalists, the mind adds something to our mental experience. Eg. Chess. Empisistis says the two are looking at the same thing, whereas the rationalist says that one may see and understand more than the other. The Problem Of the Self ○ Wer experience continuity despite vastly different expereinces over our lifespans. We see ourselves as the same person from moment to moment. What accounts for this? Different ideas about the soul or the mind Seeing the self as autonomous creates a number of prblems in psychology. How are humans and animals related? ○ Are we qualitatively or qantitatively different from them? ○ How much can we learn about ourselves from animals? Relativism ○ Are there universal truths or can universal truths not exist because of relativism? What is true for one is not always true for another. Relativism VS universalism Downloaded by JENESAH HANKE ([email protected])