PSY1101 - Chapter 2 - Psychology Research Methods PDF

CHAPTER 2: Research Methods Let’s try an experiment – with spagetti “At some time or other, everybody asks the questions, ‘Why? What? How?’ The child asks, ‘Where do babies come from?’ Parents ask, ‘Why does he behave like that?’ Samuel Johnson remarked that curiosity is one of the permanent...

CHAPTER 2: Research Methods Let’s try an experiment – with spagetti “At some time or other, everybody asks the questions, ‘Why? What? How?’ The child asks, ‘Where do babies come from?’ Parents ask, ‘Why does he behave like that?’ Samuel Johnson remarked that curiosity is one of the permanent and certain characteristics of a vigorous intellect. The scientist might be defined as a person whose indulgence of his curiosity is also the means by which he earns his living.” Murray Sidman Let’s try an experiment – with coins  Why Do We Conduct Research on Behavior? Behavior does not always match our expectations Research allows us to generate theories, hypotheses, and even determine causal relationships 2.1 Introduction: How Do We Know?  2.2 Psychology as a Science The Scientific Method Studying the effects of Steps involved fatigue on performance 1. Identify the problem 2. Gather information 3. Generate a hypothesis 4. Design and conduct experiments 5. Analyze data and formulate conclusions 6. Restart the process https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/ File:Human_fatigue_study.jpg Author: NASA Ames Research Center – Human Systems  2.2 Psychology as a Science Example in Psychology Identify the problem Marshmallow Peeps Based on observation, previous research, established theory, or intuition People often behave impulsively and engage in risky behavior https://www.flickr.com/photos/theimpulsivebuy/ 25169924660 Author: theimpulsivebuy  2.2 Psychology as a Science Example in Psychology Gather information Search the literature to see what has been done on topic Read relevant results for what’s been done Search for impulsivity, self-control, and delay discounting  2.2 Psychology as a Science Example in Psychology Impulsive Hypothesis Develop an informed guess based on what you’re read Have a prediction about how the variables are related Smaller, sooner People might show self- control if they have a delay before both smaller, sooner and larger, later rewards Larger, later  2.2 Psychology as a Science Design and Conduct Experiment Impulsive Self-control with delay $300 in $100 in $300 in 2 $100 2 2 months + now 2 weeks months weeks Smaller, Smaller, sooner sooner reward Larger, later reward Larger, later reward reward  2.2 Psychology as a Science Example in Psychology Design and conduct experiment Self-control experiment Test your hypothesis with Group Baseline Treatme at least two conditions nt One Control group that Experimen No delay Delay doesn’t receive treatment tal before before One Experimental group smaller, smaller, that receives treatment sooner sooner Control No delay No delay Baseline is a condition before before without a manipulation smaller, smaller, sooner sooner  2.2 Psychology as a Science Example in Psychology Data analysis and Self-control experimental conclusions results See if the data you Group Baseline Treatmen obtained match your t expected results Experime 10% 75% Data match the hypothesis ntal larger, larger, later later Control 10% 10% Inserting a delay after larger, larger, choice but before getting later later reward produces self- control  2.2 Psychology as a Science Example in Psychology Restart process Think about original problem People behave impulsively and engage in risky behavior Replicate and extend results or ask an entirely new question Ask how this could be applied to drug users Descriptive Methods for Conducting Research Naturalistic Observation Participant Observation Case Studies Surveys  Just Watch and Learn Observe behavior without manipulation Most likely representative of real world behavior No control over behavior Difficult to determine exact cause of behavior https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/ File:People_watching_stuff_(6612658911).jpg Author: Andrew Bowden 2.3.1 Naturalistic Observation CC BY-SA 2.0  Become a Member of a Group and Learn Researcher interacts with Bronislaw Malinowski with population of interest Trobriand Islands tribe Allows for research insights from participants’ perspective May be subject to biases – researcher sees what they expect Reactivity – researchers presence influences subjects Observations may not be https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/ repeatable File:Wmalinowski_trobriand_isles_1918.jpg Author: Billy Hancock Public Domain 2.3.2 Participant Observation  In Depth about One Person Phineas Gage A report of a single person, group, or situation Often used for unusual situations Collect a lot of detail Not an experiment Can be difficult to draw causal relationships Can’t generalize what you find https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/ 2.3.3 Case Studies File:Phineas_Gage_GageMillerPhoto2010-02- 17_Unretouched_Color_Cropped.jpg Public Domain  Patient Henry Molaison (H.M.) 2.3.3 Case Studies Pros and cons: Naturalistic observation, participant observation, and case studies allow us to study small groups and learn rich information. Not typically representative of the larger population Researchers often use surveys for this  Participants Answer Standard Questions Questions to extract specific information from a group of people Relatively easy to administer An effective approach to gather lots of information Can be more representative than Naturalistic observation or case studies (depends how you sample) Susceptible to biases from both researchers and participants 2.3.4 Surveys Biases Sampling bias leading to lack of Representativeness (eg. Volunteer bias) Wording effects Acquiescent response bias (agree with Response bias everything) (answer as expected) Socially desirable bias Illusory bias (better than average effect)  Ethics in Psychology Research Ethics is a set of general principles of how people should be educated, treated, and respected when participating in any study Image courtesy of Wikimedia Commons under the Public Domain, 2.4 Research Ethics for Human Participants  General Ethical Principles of Psychologists Principle A: Beneficence and Nonmaleficence Principle B: Fidelity and Responsibility (report unethical behaviour, honest and reliable with participants) Principle C: Integrity (honest unbiased practice science/teaching/practice) Principle D: Justice (equality) Principle E: Respect for People’s Rights and Dignity (consent, privacy, confidentiality) 2.4 Research Ethics for Human Participants  The Practice of Ethical Research Internal Review Boards, or IRBs, review and assess if a research project will be carried out in a way that is consistent with the General Ethical Principles: Whether the study make has sound research design. That risks associated with participation in the study are minimized and reasonable. The benefits of the research outweigh any potential risks. That all participants can make an informed decision to participate in the study, and that decision may be withdrawn at any time without consequence to the participant. That safeguards are in place to protect the well being of participants. That all data collected will be kept private and confidential. 2.4 Research Ethics for Human Participants  Facebook Social Emotional Experiment: A Question of Informed Consent Image courtesy of Facebook in the Public Domain Researchers manipulated how many positive or negative news feeds 689,000 users saw No one provided informed consent to participate, or given a choice to withdraw 2.4 Research Ethics for Human Participants  Special Ethical Considerations Vulnerable populations: Two criteria for participation: Decisional impairment (diminished capacity) Situational vulnerability (freedom of choice compromised) Image courtesy of Wikimedia Commons under the CCASA4.0 license 2.4 Research Ethics for Human Participants  Special Ethical Considerations Decisional impairment: Potential participants that are not able to legally give informed consent, such children or other individuals of special populations Two criteria for participation: Informed consent from parent/guardian Assent from potential participant Image courtesy of Wikimedia Commons under the CCASA4.0 license 2.4 Research Ethics for Human Participants  Special Ethical Considerations Informed consent process may affect participants natural behavior/reactions. Some study may not reveal the true nature of the study until after participation is complete. This is called deception. Necessary criteria: Minimal risk Rights/well-being not impacted during the study Clear justification Debrief Image courtesy of Wikimedia Commons under the Public Domain, 2.4 Research Ethics for Human Participants  Example of deception: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cBDkJ-Nc3Ig Milgram’s experiment Were there ethical violations? 2.4 Research Ethics for Human Participants Correlation  How are Two Variables Related? Correlation coefficient tells you the direction and strength of a relationship between two variables r = +1 r = -1 r= +0.5 2.5.1-2.5.2 Direction of correlation – Strength of Correlation  Correlations Can Be Misleading 2.5.3 Correlations Can Be Misleading  Correlations can be misleading – murder and ice cream Confounding variables in correlation Let’s try an experiment - with chocolate  Why We Conduct Experiments Testing theories through controlled experiments Can be used to establish a cause and effect relationship Hypothesis driven 2.6 Experimental Methods  What We Test in Experiments Hypothesis is an “educated Hypothesis: If we move recycling bins closer to guess” about outcome of (or in) individual offices, people will an experiment recycle more items Characteristics: Characteristics: 1. Hallway recycling bins are 1. Consistent with prior usually far away and empty observation 2. Recycling bin proximity to offices 2. Simple 3. Move recycling bins, target employees in offices, and expect 3. Specific improvement 4. Measurable 4. Count recycled items in bins 5. Establish causality 5. Look at recycling when bins far away from and close to offices 6. Falsifiable 6. More items in far away bins 2.6.1 The Hypothesis  Important Variables In Experiments Variables Extraneous Independent Dependent Variables Variable Variable (confoundin g) What experimenter What participant does Uncontrolled events changes Recycling – place items in Upcoming Earth Day Recycling bin proximity bin activities 2.6.2 Experimental Variables  Who Will Participate? 1. Simple random sample Everyone has an equal chance 2. Stratified random sample Divide into subgroups and take representative samples 3. Non-random sample Due to study constraints, not equal chances eg. Convenience sample Work with what you’ve got (e.g., subject pool) 2.6.3 Sample Selection – some examples  Groups Experimental Group Control group 1. The group that you are 1. The group that you are conducting the not conducting an experiment on experiment on 2. The group exposed to 2. A group that is not the independent variable influenced by the independent variable 3. Measure the effect of the independent variable on 3. Used to compare dependent variable experimental results with behavior affected only by naturally-occurring conditions 2.6.4 Experimental and Control Groups  Placebo The placebo is the effect of a treatment that arises from a patient’s expectations but not the independent variable 2.6.4 Experimental and Control Groups  Validity 2.6.5 Internal Validity/External Should You Trust Your Experimental Results? Internal Validity External Validity The degree to which results can The degree to which results be attributed to the can be generalized independent variable and not 1. to other people other explanations (e.g., 2. across settings confounds) 3. across time Math student grades improved Chemistry students also only after spaced retrieval benefit from spaced retrieval practice; the quizzes were not practice the following easier semester …and now for something completely different Statistics:  Describing Data Middle https:// commons.wikimedia.org 1. Mode – most frequent /wiki/ File:Visualisation_mode_ value median_mean.svg Author: Cmglee 2. Median – look at total CC BY-SA 3.0 number of values, divide in half, record value given for middle data point 3. Mean – average; center of dataset, skewed by outliers 2.7.1 Describing Data: Central Tendency  Describing Data Variability 1. Range – subtract lowest from highest data value 2. Standard deviation – spread of data around mean; 3. Variance – average of squared deviation scores; (standard deviation)2 2.7.2 Describing Data: Spread of Data  Making Judgements with Data Statistics and the 5% rule: If the probability of an event is less than 5%, we call that a “rare” event This gives us a guideline to detect differences 2.7.3 A Brief Introduction to Inferential Statistics  Making Judgements with Data Frequency of each score 50 % Symmetrical about the mean -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 Range of scores 2.7.3 A Brief Introduction to Inferential Statistics  Applying the 5% rule to data Frequency of each score 1.64 standard deviations away from 5% the mean represents the most extreme 5% of our data -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 -1.64 Standard Deviation 2.7.3 A Brief Introduction to Inferential Statistics  Using Statistics in Research Everything we talk about in this course is based on scientific research