PSY100 Combined Notes - Chapters 7-9 PDF

What is Memory?: LEARNING OBJECTIVES 1. What is Memory? LEARNING OBJECTIVES 1. Describe the basic processes of memory. 2. Explain the idea of memory encoding. 3. Identify and explain th...

What is Memory?: LEARNING OBJECTIVES 1. What is Memory? LEARNING OBJECTIVES 1. Describe the basic processes of memory. 2. Explain the idea of memory encoding. 3. Identify and explain the different memory stores. 4. Define the processes of memory retrieval. 5. Identify and differentiate between different types of forgetting. 6. Apply study tips based on the science of memory. 7. Recognize how memory contributes to health and wellness. 1.1. What is the Nature of Memory? Memory: The retention of information or experience over time as the result of three key processes: encoding, storage, and retrieval. The process by which we observe, store, and recall information (visual, auditory, tactile). Taste and smell are only experienced with recognition, but cannot be remembered the way memory works. Encode: take in the information (sights and sounds) Storage: store or represent it in some manner (some mental storehouse) Retrieval: retrieve for a later purpose (e.g., when someone asks) May involve multiple systems (multiple levels of awareness, e.g., alert, sleepy, etc. and consciousness, e.g., fully conscious, limited consciousness, etc.). Conscious & Automatic 1.2. What is Memory Encoding? Encoding: The first step in memory; the process by which information gets into memory storage. o Some encoding is automatic, some takes more effort; various types of encoding which take effort Confabulation: filling in memory that is missing using schemas, frameworks, logic Attention Attention: to begin encoding, have to pay attention. What you remember is what you pay attention to. The processing capacity of the conscious mind is about 120 bits per second. It takes about half of conscious capacity to properly pay attention to something. Spotlight Analogy: different levels of intentional awareness interacting with the environment around oneself, degree of attention differs. Recall being in a theatre where a play is taking place, the general lights are very subtle. The stage lights are prominent. This is how memory functions. The issue is that what the spotlight on may not necessary be beneficial and vice versa. Conscious awareness is like a spotlight. Focusing conscious awareness on something increases degree of awareness to it, increasing memory. Sensory detection: ignore most things as otherwise, too much stimuli and cannot focus on anything. D. Khan 1 What is Memory?: What is Memory Encoding? Recognition of meaning: determining which stimuli have meaning Response selection: ignore unnecessary stimuli and focus only on relevant stimuli. E.g., ignore movement in a lecture, but any raised hands need to be called out as they have a question Types of Attention Divided Attention: Concentrating on more than one activity at the same time; detrimental to encoding. Divided attention is divided performance. Doing things simultaneously almost always results in divided performance. o Multitasking: dividing attention to two or more things – negative consequences for learning/memory Sustained Attention (aka vigilance): The ability to maintain attention to a selected stimulus for a prolonged period of time. Levels of Processing? Fergus Craik and Robert Lockhart (1972) suggested that encoding can be influenced by levels of processing: Levels of Processing: A continuum of memory processing from shallow to intermediate to deep, with deeper processing producing better memory. For example, you were told to memorize the word “mom”. o Shallow: simply remember the shapes of the letters itself (shape, color, etc.) - Minimum amount of info. o Intermediate: read the word and remember it as that (rhyming, homonyms, etc.) o Deep: make connections with the word (meaning, symbolism) e.g., your own mom, her face, etc. The deeper/more meaningful you process something, the more you remember it What is Elaboration? Elaboration: The formation of a number of different connections around a stimulus at any given level of memory encoding. Connecting it to something one already knows; the more connections, the stronger the memory. MRIs have shown that elaboration is linked with neural activity (left frontal lobe & hippocampus). Self-reference: relating material to your own experience is an effective method of elaboration D. Khan 2 What is Memory?: What is Memory Encoding? How Does Imagery Improve Memory? Powerful method of remembering is mental imagery, e.g., creating a story which has the things to remember, or remember a name by noting a distinguishing mole on their face Allan Paivio showed that imagery can improve memory. He argued that memory is stored through verbal code (words/labels) or image codes. He claimed that memory for pictures is better because stored in both Facilitating Encoding: All of this helps with deep encoding, as it connects to old information that one already knows. Elaboration: examples, narratives, etc. help the brain remember. Human beings have always communicated through verbal expression. Visual Imagery: adding imagery increases number of neural traces. More ways encoded, higher likelihood of retrieval Self Referential Encoding: Personal examples are easier to remember. Rehearsal and Over-learning: repetition is useful for memory. Its possible to learn something to the degree that there can be no improvement. But, over-learning can continue to increase recall. Is not efficient. Deep and Transfer Appropriate processing: study the way that you are going to use/be tested on the info. Short-answer and MC studying should be different. Deep processing is to connect with known information. Distributed practice: distribute across different sessions, instead of one longer session. Attention in multiple short sessions is consistently high and consolidation is better. Organize information: making lists and the like Mnemonic Devices Verbal mnemonics: o acrostics, acronyms, and rhymes - E.g., SAT (Standardized Aptitude Tests), Roy G. Biv - Children tend to learn acrostics, acronyms, rhymes, etc. Visual mnemonics: o link method (creating an image with everything in it), method of loci (placing it in places where you pass by often), keyword o SQ3R D. Khan 3 What is Memory?: What is Memory Storage? Encoding Specificity: Encoding specificity principle: Idea that ease of retrieval of a memory depends on match of encoding with retrieval, e.g., environment. Walk into old bedroom, flush of memories. Other examples, emotional state. E.g., when sad, difficult to remember happy things and encode happy things. o Poor recall if shallow learning is examined using a deep processing technique - Student who reads multiple choice items in text book and then takes an essay exam will likely not do very well - State-dependent memory 1.3. What is Memory Storage? Storage: The retention of information over time and how this information is represented in memory. Atkinson–Shiffrin theory: Theory stating that memory storage involves three separate systems: o Sensory memory/registers (fraction of a second to several seconds) - Iconic (visual) - Echoic (auditory) o Short-term memory (up to 30 seconds) (STM) o Long-term memory (up to lifespan) (LTM) Sensory register takes in stimulus and before what can even realize it, it is often lost (most things). Those things which consciousness deem a bit more important is stored in short-term memory. It is quickly forgotten as well unless it is rehearsed, or linked to long-term memory. D. Khan 4 What is Memory?: What is Memory Storage? What is Sensory Memory? Sensory memory: Memory system that involves holding information from the world in its original sensory form for only an instant, not much longer than the brief time it is exposed to the visual, auditory, and other senses. It is rich and detailed, but it lost unless transferred to short-term or long-term memory. Echoic memory: refers to auditory sensory memory, retained for up to several seconds. o George Sperling (1960) experiment: flashed letters on a screen for a very brief interval Iconic memory: refers to visual sensory memory, retained for about ¼ of a second. What is Short-Term Memory? Short-term memory: Limited-capacity memory system in which information is usually retained for only as long as 30 seconds unless the individual uses strategies to retain it longer. Memory span: refers to the number of digits an individual can report back, in order, after a single presentation of them STM is a variant of memory that is of limited duration: o Information in STM fades after 20-30 seconds (without rehearsal) STM has limited capacity storage o STM capacity is about 7 items of information - Capacity is constant across cultures STM Involves rehearsal o Maintenance: information is repeated o Elaborative: information is related to other knowledge What is Chunking and Rehearsal? Methods to improve short-term memory are chunking and rehearsal: Chunking: grouping/packing information into higher-order units that can be remembered as single units, i.e., making large amounts of information more manageable Rehearsal: conscious repetition of information; lacks meaning so does not last long. What is Working Memory? Short-term memory (passive memory system): stores information until it moves to long-term memory. Working memory (active memory system): A combination of components, including short-term memory and attention, that allow holding information temporarily as cognitive tasks are performed; a kind of mental workbench on which the brain manipulates and assembles information to guide understanding, decision making, and problem solving. Where conscious thought happens. It might be possible to improve working memory function with consistent practice Working memory (STM 2.0) is temporary storage and processing of information w/conscious control used to o solve problems o respond to environmental demands o achieve goals Working memory may consist of three modules D. Khan 5 What is Memory?: What is Memory Storage? o Visual Memory Store o Verbal Memory Store o Central Executive: closest analogy to consciousness, allows what to pay attention to (dorsolateral prefrontal cortex Visual memory store o A temporary image (20-30 sec) that provides information about the location and nature of objects Verbal memory store o Involves storage of verbal items - Limited capacity - Shallow: Items are processed in order of presentation and are subject to interference Working memory stores are independent o Brain damage may alter visual but not verbal How Does it Work? Alan Baddeley proposed three-part model of working memory: 1. Phonological loop: briefly stores speech-based information. a. Acoustic code: what you hear, which decays in seconds b. Rehearsal: which allows for repetition in the phonological store 2. Visuo-spatial sketchpad: stores visual and spatial information, including visual imagery. Limited capacity. 3. Central executive: integrates information from the other two and also from long-term memory. Acts like a supervisor who monitors which information deserves attention and which can be ignored. What is Long-Term Memory? Long-term memory: A relatively permanent type of memory that stores huge amounts of information for a long time. LTM refers to the representations of facts, images, actions, and skills that may persist over a lifetime LTM involves retrieval of information LTM is theoretically limitless in capacity The serial position curve supports the existence of STM versus LTM o Primacy effect reflects LTM o Recency effect reflects STM D. Khan 6 What is Memory?: What is Memory Storage? What Are the Components of Long-Term Memory? Explicit Memory: remembering who, what, where, when, and how Implicit Memory: remembering how These are separate functions; someone who loses the ability to create explicit memories can still learn new skills and improve them over time (but would not remember he learned them in the first place) Demonstrated by Brenda Milner on her study of H. M., who underwent surgery due to severe epilepsy; they removed his hippocampus, portion of temporal lobes from both hemispheres What is Explicit Memory? Explicit memory, or declarative memory: The conscious recollection of information, such as specific facts or events and, at least in humans, information that can be verbally communicated. Permastore memory: portion of original learning that stays with the person forever, even without rehearsal. Episodic memory: The retention of information about the where, when, and what of life’s happenings—that is, how individuals remember life’s episodes; autobiographical memory. The brain relives the episode when thinking about it. Semantic memory: A person’s knowledge about the world, including their areas of expertise; general knowledge, such as of things learned in school, important places, and everyday knowledge. Semantic memory is independent of episodic memory; you do not remember when you learned a particular fact. This is also why someone can lose their memory, i.e., episodic memory, forgetting who they are, their family, etc., but still know who the prime minister is and other facts. Criticism: line can be blurred between the two D. Khan 7 What is Memory?: What is Memory Storage? What Is Implicit Memory? Implicit memory, or nondeclarative memory: Long-term memory in which behaviour is affected by prior experience without a conscious recollection of that experience. E.g., playing tennis, riding a bike etc. Subsystems include: Procedural memory: memory for skills, e.g., knowing where letters on keyboard are. Classical Conditioning: learning associations between stimuli Priming: the activation of information that people already have in storage to help them remember new information better and faster. Makes it more available in memory. Showing certain words then asking to fill in the blanks results in higher likelihood of filling in the word shown, even if they could not remember it before. Working Memory and LTM Evidence supporting a distinction between working memory and LTM Working memory is easily accessed, but is limited in capacity (4+1 bits of info; next most intelligent species, maybe chimpanzee, are 1+1) Neurological studies in which brain damage impairs memory o LTM impairment: person shows normal working memory, but cannot transfer information to LTM o Working memory deficit: person has a memory span of 2 digits, but normal LTM Chunking: LTM information is used to increase item size in working memory (e.g. IBM, USC, CIA) Functional Aspects of Memory Recall for information may be a function of our interest in the information: o Men show better recall for workbench construction details than details on how to make a shirt… o We prefer things we are interested in/participated in Networks of Association LTM is organized in clusters of information that are related in meaning (folk, croak, soak, then you say yolk instead of egg-white since the schema is already activated) o The network is composed of interconnected nodes o A node may contain thoughts, images, smells, emotions, or any other information o Mnemonic devices allow one to add concepts to existing networks o Varieties of LTM D. Khan 8 What is Memory?: What is Memory Storage? Varieties of LTM Declarative memory o Semantic: “generic” knowledge of facts o Episodic: memories of specific events ▪ Autobiographical Procedural memory: for skills Explicit memory: Conscious retrieval of information o Recall versus recognition (semantic + episodic) Implicit memory: Skills, conditioned learning, and associative memory How Is Memory Organized? Memory is organized in particular way, e.g., you know the months in order, hard to say them alphabetically. Organizing any information increases memorization of it, even unintentionally. What Are Schemas? Schema: A pre-existing mental concept or framework that helps people to organize and interpret information. Schemas from prior encounters with the environment influence the way individuals encode, make inferences about, and retrieve information. E.g., you go into a restaurant and you know what will happen (get menu, order, and so on). Schema theory says that long-term memory is not exact; it is reconstructed using schemas. Script: A schema for an event, containing information about physical features, people, & typical occurrences. E.g., a well-dressed person will hand you a paper at the end of your meal at the fancy restaurant: that’s the bill What Are Connectionist Networks? Connectionism, or parallel distributed processing (PDP): The theory that memory is stored throughout the brain in connections among neurons, several of which may work together to process a single memory. Instead of large knowledge structures (schemas), in connectionism memories are electrical impulses organized to the extent that the neurons and their connections are organized. This neural activity is at nodes which are interconnected in synapses. Connectionist argue that strength of synaptic connection is the basis of memory. Where are Memories Stored? Memories are not stored in the brain in one place, memories are processes which recreate brain activity. D. Khan 9 What is Memory?: What is Memory Retrieval? How Do Neurons Relate to Memory? Up to 1,000 neurons may be involves in a single memory; but individual specific are important too, one neuron might recognize face, another eye color, another hair color, etc. Long-term potentiation: explains how memory functions at neuronal level. If two neurons fired at the same time, connection between them may be strengthened. What Brain Structures Affect Memory Functions? Frontal Lobes (personality, intelligence, voluntary muscles): forms long-term memories Temporal Lobes (language/hearing): cannot convert short-term memories to long-term memories Prefrontal cortex (executive function): remembering information short time periods + autobiographical exp. Amygdala (emotional response): long-term memories of emotional events + adding emotion to memories Hippocampus: long-term memory Cerebellum (balance and posture): long-term remembering of implicit memory; learning new skills Basal Ganglia (controls voluntary movement): new habits Explicit memory: hippocampus, temporal lobes, and other parts of limbic system. Frontal lobes for retrospective memory and prospective memory Left frontal lobe is active when encoding new information in memory Right frontal lobe active when retrieving memory Amygdala for emotional memories Implicit memory: cerebellum active in implicit memory for new skills. Temporal lobes, hippocampus, and other involved for priming. 1.4. What is Memory Retrieval? Memory retrieval: The memory process that occurs when information that was retained in memory comes out of storage. Long-term memory is like a puzzle, except you fill in the blanks with imaginations, belief, schemas, etc. What is the Serial Position Effect? Serial position effect: The tendency to recall the items at the beginning and end of a list more readily than those in the middle. Leads to low recall of the middle of the list. Primacy effect: better recall of items at the beginning (rehearsed more/get more processing/nothing before) Recency effect: better recall of items at the end (still might be in working memory; recent exposure) Both affect how stimuli feels: primacy – wine tasters like first wine better & recency – best audition is the last one What Are Retrieval Cues and the Retrieval Task? Can generate retrieval cues, e.g., to remember people think about the activities you used to do and link Retrieval task can affect time: whether you know someone (quick) vs. where did you meet them (slow) What is the Difference Between Recall and Recognition? Recall: a memory task in which the individual has to retrieve previously learned information. D. Khan 10 What is Memory?: What is Memory Retrieval? Recognition: memory task in which individual has to identify learned items (more retrieval cues here) What is Encoding Specificity? Encoding specificity principle: information present at time of encoding/learning tends to be an effective retrieval cue. Forgot your teachers name when you see them in public in casual clothing (the cues are not there) How Does Context Affect Encoding and Retrieval? Change in context between encoding and retrieval can cause memory to fail Context-dependent memory: ability to better recall information when in the same context it was learned in What Are Special Cues of Retrieval? Human beings tend to fill in the gaps of their memories. False memories: people remember an event that never happened. Involves errors in distinguishing mental contents: internally general experience (thoughts/imagination) and externally generated experience. E.g., imagining telling your friend and you thinking it happened. False memory can involve traumatic events What is Special About the Retrieval of Autobiographical Memories? Autobiographical memory: A special form of episodic memory, consisting of a person’s recollections of their life experiences. Most contains some reality and some myth. Reminiscence bump: tendency for adults to remember more events from the 2nd and 3rd decade of their life Conway and Rubin, model for autobiographical memory: Life time periods: general about a time period, e.g., high school General events: like a trip, festival, etc. Event-specific knowledge: the path you hiked on your trip. What is Different About the Retrieval of Emotional Memories? Life experiences are wrapped in emotion; emotion effects encoding. More emotion, more attention, more encoding. Flashbulb memory: The memory of emotionally significant events that people often recall with more accuracy and vivid imagery than everyday events. Often for decades. E.g., where you were at 9/11. Does not mean the memory was encoded accurately. More likely to remember personal state than event. How is Memory Affected by Traumatic Events? Traumatic events are likely more precisely retained due to stress-related hormones involved. Can still have errors. What Are Repressed Memories? Repression: defence mechanism by which a person is so traumatized by an event that they forget it and then forget the act of forgetting. D. Khan 11 What is Memory?: Why Do We Forget? Controversial whether one truly forgets Motivated forgetting: Forgetting that occurs when something is so painful or anxiety-laden that remembering it is intolerable. Discovered memories: forgotten memories which are recovered. Retrieval failures: information was never there in the first place Motivated forgetting: dentist appointment, do not like dentist, unconscious forgets on purpose Denial: I will not die from smoking Repression: repressing memory on purpose Psychogenic amnesia: trauma which causes to forget False Memory Syndrome What Is the Truth About Eyewitness Testimony? Memory can be distorted by new information and can fade with time. Bias/racism is a factor; can skew results. 1.5. Why Do We Forget? Hermann Ebbinghaus first person to research forgetting; made up nonsense syllables, tracked memory of them Majority of forgetting happened immediately. But memorizing more meaningful things lasted longer What is Encoding Failure? Encoding failure: when the information never enters long-term memory. Not forgetting perse, just not learning properly in the first place. E.g., never paid attention to what a nickel looks like. What is Retrieval Failure? Paid attention, studied, know it; but cannot recall it. What is Interference? Interference theory: The theory that people forget not because memories are lost from storage but because other information gets in the way of what they want to remember. This might be because cues are too similar, “good friend” Proactive interference: Situation in which material that was learned earlier disrupts the recall of material that was learned later. E.g., mix-up names with someone you know before. D. Khan 12 What is Memory?: What Study Tips Can We Learn from the Science of Memory? Retroactive interference: Situation in which material that was learned later disrupts the retrieval of information that was learned earlier. E.g., mix-up old friend name with someone knew. What is Decay? Decay theory: States that when an individual learns something new a neurochemical memory trace forms, but over time this trace disintegrates; suggests that the passage of time always increases forgetting. However, under the right retrieval conditions, we can recover memories that are forgetten. What is the Tip-of-the-Tongue Phenomenon? Tip-of-the-tongue (TOT) phenomenon: A type of effortful retrieval associated with a person’s feeling that they know something (say, a word or a name) but cannot quite pull it out of memory. Might know letter or syllable. What is Prospective Memory? Prospective memory: Remembering information about doing something in the future; includes memory for intentions. It includes timing and content. Time-based: intend to engage in after some time or at a specific moment Event-based: intend to engage after some cue, e.g., when meet X person Failures related to absentmindedness: being preoccupied with sometime else, distracted, or under pressue. What is Amnesia? Amnesia: The loss of memory. Anterograde amnesia: A memory disorder that affects the retention of new information and events. Retrograde amnesia: Memory loss for a segment of the past but not for new events (more common) “Seven Sins of Memory” Memories are transient (fade with time) We do not remember what we do not pay attention to Our memories can be temporarily blocked We can misattribute the source of memory We are suggestible in our memories We can show memory distortion (bias) We often fail to forget the things we would like not to recall (persistence of memory) 1.6. What Study Tips Can We Learn from the Science of Memory? Make something more meaningful, connect more to the node, think deeply about – all increases retention How Do We Read Actively? Involves paying attention while reading and understanding the material. Do readings before lecture as it creates familiarity and recognition; more opportunities to understand material D. Khan 13 What is Memory?: How Does Memory Contribute to Health and Wellness? Read the summary first: gives framework and primes you Write down the heading question: basis to study later Ask heading questions out loud: sound interested, prioritizes attention. Answer out loud too. If can’t, re-read Write down your answer: this what you’re most likely to remember Study from the questions and answers you wrote down when you read the chapter Why Is Organizing Import? Improves academic performance Review notes routinely, catch errors and ambiguities early Organize material in a way that makes memorizing it easier (rearrange, rework, restructure) Experiment with different techniques Plan your academic schedule: when and what will you do, and how long. Add 30 minutes extra to everything Distribute practice: do not study for more than 50 minutes consecutively at a time How Can We Improve Our Encoding? Stay Focused: Avoid distractions; study in a quiet space without music, TV, or your phone. Process Deeply: Think about the material in a meaningful way to understand it thoroughly. Elaborate and Relate: Link new information to your personal experiences or related knowledge. Take notes by hand to reinforce understanding through self-referential thinking. Use Imagery: Create mental images to "double encode" the information and enhance recall. Chunk Information: Organize smaller bits of information into larger, meaningful chunks. Frequent Encoding: always make associations during class, reading, discussions, rather than only before test. Group Study: Discussing material out loud in groups boosts motivation and enhances understanding. Study Before Sleep: Review material before bed, as sleep helps reinforce memory and recall. How Do We Rehearse? Rehearsing solidifies it in memory Rewrite, type, or retype or notes Talk to others about what you have learnt and how important it is. Test yourself While reading and studying, ask yourself questions Treat your brain kindly: rest it, nourish it, etc. How Do We Retrieve Information More Effectively? Use retrieval cues – sit in the same seat where you learned, use other material to recall Sit comfortably, take a deep breath, and stay calm – information in memory is there for a long time (panic negatively affects recall) 1.7. How Does Memory Contribute to Health and Wellness? Autobiographical memories form the core of identity. The stories we focus on/tell affect us. Those who describe life as bad to better (redemptive stories), are more generative: make contributions and leave good legacies behind D. Khan 14 What Are Thinking, Intelligence, and Language?: LEARNING OBJECTIVES o Better adjusted those who tell stores that go good to bad (contamination stories) How Do We Keep Memory Sharp and Preserve Brain Function? Use it or lose it Those who are educated, have high IQ, and are mentally stimulated are better at dealing with stroke, head injury, Alzheimer’s, and even poisoning from neurotoxins. Physical activity also has a role in keeping the mind sharp How Does Memory Shape Meaningful Experiences? Actively engaging in life, investing in daily events and relationships, ensures life is rich and nuanced 2. What Are Thinking, Intelligence, and Language? LEARNING OBJECTIVES 1. Recognize the connections between cognition and computers. 2. Illustrate the role problem-solving techniques play in thinking and real-life problems. 3. Analyze the importance of cultural fairness in intelligence testing. 4. Evaluate how languages and cognition interact. 5. Describe how re-evaluating stressful events can improve your health. 2.1. What is Thinking? Thinking: The process of manipulating information mentally by forming concepts, solving problems, making decisions, and reflecting critically or creatively. What Are Concepts? Concepts: Mental categories that are used to group objects, events, and characteristics. E.g., ant and bee insects Allows to generalize to other experiences (otherwise everything would be a brand-new experience) Allows association of experiences and objects, e.g., basketball, soccer, etc. all sports Makes memory more efficient, e.g., do not have to think about how to sit in a chair every time Clues how to react to object/experience, e.g., new cuisine, is food Prototype model: A model emphasizing that when people evaluate whether a given item reflects a certain concept, they compare the item with the most typical item(s) in that category and look for a “family resemblance” with that item’s properties. Method how people categorize things to be in a category. People use characteristics properties to create an average/best example, e.g., fruit = apple, apple = red What is Problem Solving? Problem solving: mental process of finding an appropriate way to attain a goal when the goal is not readily available. Four Steps in Problem Solving 1. How do you find and frame problem? a. Recognize problem exists, define what is involved and needs to be solved. D. Khan 15 What Are Thinking, Intelligence, and Language?: What is Thinking? 2. How do you develop good problem-solving strategies? a. Using subgoals, algorithms, and heuristics. i. Subgoals: Intermediate goals or intermediate problems devised to put the individual in a better position for reaching the final goal or solution. Start backward from goal itself. ii. Algorithms: Strategies—including formulas, instructions, and the testing of all possible solutions—that guarantee a solution to a problem. iii. Heuristics: Shortcut strategies or guidelines that suggest a solution to a problem but do not guarantee an answer. 3. How do you evaluate solutions? a. Determine a criterion to judge effectiveness of the solution. 4. How do you rethink and redefine problems and solutions over time? a. Rethink and redefine problems continually. How Does Fixation Prevent Us From Solving Problems? Good problem solving has revision/correction; there might be other ways; trying something new; cognitively flexible Fixation: Using a prior strategy and failing to look at a problem from a fresh new perspective. Functional fixedness: Failing to solve a problem as a result of fixation on a thing’s usual functions. o Maier string problem: string and pliers. Tie pliers to one of the string and swing to tie. What Are Reasoning and Decision Making? What Are Two Types of Reasoning? Reasoning: mental activity of transforming information to reach conclusions. Applying logic, weighing arguments, etc. Inductive reasoning: Reasoning from specific observations to make generalizations. o Incoming information and drawing conclusions. Take a sip of milk, sour, throw all of it out without tasting the rest. This is how study can be generalized. Deductive reasoning: Reasoning from a general principle that is known to be true to a specific instance. o Ralph is a cat, cats have whiskers, Ralph has whiskers. Induction is specific instance to general case, while deduction is general principle down to a specific instance What is Decision Making? Decision making: The mental activity of evaluating alternatives and choosing among them. Reasoning is following specific rules; decision making the rules may not exists and consequences unknown Less certain with usually less info. What Are the Two Systems of Reasoning and Decision Making? Automatic (system 1): rapid, heuristic, associative, intuitive – one’s hunches about a problem, even if don’t know why More efficient and can be less biased Learned from automatic processes, implicit memory; does not guarantee right answer Controlled (system 2): slower, effortful, analytical – conscious reflection, e.g., math problems D. Khan 16 What Are Thinking, Intelligence, and Language?: What is Thinking? How Can Biases and Heuristics Lead to Bad Decisions? Relying on heuristics can increase error frequency and bias influence: Loss Aversion: tendency to weigh potential losses more heavily than potential gains o E.g., not buying a new stock out of fear of possible loss while possible gain is much higher o Endowment effect: people ascribe greater value to things they own, compared to owned by others o Sunk cost fallacy: unwilling to give up something due to past investment Confirmation Bias: tendency to search/use for information which supports one’s ideas; we tend to seek this o Also known as myside bias, e.g., only considering apparent success stories of alternative medicine Base Rate Neglect: tendency to ignore information about general principles in favor of very specific vivid info o E.g., expert recommends something, but you trust your friend who had a bad experience instead Hindsight Bias: tendency to report falsely, after the fact, that one correctly predicted an outcome “I knew it” o E.g., I knew this team would win the tournament Representativeness Heuristic: tendency to make judgements on appearance/stereotype over base rate info o E.g., assume the most disheveled looking person in a police lineup most likely to commit crime Availability Heuristic: Prediction about probability of an event based on ease of recalling similar events o E.g., being afraid of an airplane accident over car because you heard an airplane crashed Effort heuristic: assuming the likelihood of getting what you want is determined by how hard you work o Common in children; their predictions are often colored by what they hope will happen as well Bias blind spot: recognize biases in others may miss them in their own decisions. How Can We Think More Critically and Creatively? What Are Two Habits to Improve Critical Thinking? Critical thinking: the process of reflecting deeply and actively, asking questions, and evaluating the evidence. How we know something. Tests the facts to reduce likelihood of bias. Requires sense of humility. Effective for problem solving. Mindfulness: The state of being alert and mentally present for one’s everyday activities; vs mindless behavior Open-mindedness: The state of being receptive to other ways of looking at things. Not dogmatic/categorical. What Is Creative Thinking? Creativity: ability to think about something in novel/unusual ways and to devise unconventional solutions to problems. Categorized as divergent/convergent: Divergent thinking: Thinking that produces many solutions to the same problem (brainstorming) Convergent thinking: Thinking that produces the single best solution to a problem. People who show creativity show following characteristics: Flexibility and playful thinking: more likely to consider possibilities and ignore inner censor Inner motivation: motivated by joy of creating; less motivated by extrinsic factors Willingness to face risk: creative people end to make more mistakes; wrong is not failure Objective evaluation of work: to evaluate work and determine if more thinking is needed D. Khan 17 What Are Thinking, Intelligence, and Language?: What Is Cognition? 2.2. What Is Cognition? Cognition: The way in which information is processed and manipulated in remembering, thinking, and knowing. Behaviourists believed that one should only focus on the observable, changed with the advent of computer Charles Babbage, father of computers, built the Analytical Engine in 1837. Ada Lovelace wrote the algorithm. Cognitive psychologists describe brain as hardware, cognition software Herbet Simon (1969) pioneer in comparing human mid to computer system; sensory/perception provides input. Input is processed. Stores processed info in memory. Information is taken from memory and printed out/displayed. Computers, however, receive information typically processed; human beings receive raw/ambiguous input Computer good at numbers/computation and direct instruction Human being can learn new rules, relationships, concepts, and is self aware Artificial intelligence (AI): A scientific field that focuses on creating machines capable of performing activities that require intelligence when they are done by people. 2.3. What is Intelligence? Intelligence: An all-purpose ability to do well on cognitive tasks, to solve problems, and to learn from experience. Charles Spearman posited idea of general intelligence/ability (g). Good in cognitive ability, reasoning, math o Savant syndrome and some studies challenge notion of general intelligence How Do We Measure Intelligence? Psychologist measure using intelligence quotient (IQ). Good tests of IQ tests for validity, reliability, & standardization Validity: The extent to which a test measures what it is intended to measure. I.e., it should measure intelligence o Good indicator is when it predicts performance in other measures, e.g., GPA Reliability: The extent to which a test yields a consistent, reproducible measure of performance. Standardization: The development of uniform procedures for administering and scoring a test and the creation of norms (performance standards) for the test. What Are IQ Tests? Alfred Binet developed tests in 1904 to see which students were lacking, known as Standford-Binet test. He compared person’s age to average ability at that age: mental age (MA): An individual’s level of mental development relative to that of others. Bright children have higher MA than their chronological age (CA), while less bright children have MA < CA. To compare different ages, William Sterm devised intelligence quotient (IQ) in 1912, which was MA/CA x 100. 100 = perfectly average, below is less than average and vice-versa Loses meaning once an adult, about 16~ and better to compare with other adults Another measure is Wechsler scales developed by David Wechsler (1939); currently most popular. Three versions: Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) for 16 and older: vocabulary, working memory capacity, math problems, jigsaw puzzles D. Khan 18 What Are Thinking, Intelligence, and Language?: What is Intelligence? Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC) (6-16): vocabulary, comprehension, block pattern fitting Wechsler Pre-School and Primary Scale of Intelligence (WPPSI) (2.5-6): point to a picture, complete block design, answer basic knowledge questions Problems with reliability and validity: Differences across race, geography, socioeconomic status Factors: test-tasking skills, knowledge, anxiety, experience, attitudes towards testing, personality IQ tests over the years have shown a normal distribution: A symmetrical, bell-shaped curve, with a majority of the scores falling in the middle of the possible range and few scores appearing toward the extremes of the range. Is Intelligence Culturally Biased? Early tests favored urban folks over rural, e.g., one question is what to do if you find a 3-year-old child, answer: call the police. But rural folk do not have police nearby and inner-city folk often distrustful of police. Non-English speakers at a natural disadvantage Culture-fair tests: Tests that are intended to be culturally unbiased. o Questions for all socioeconomic/ethnic backgrounds, no verbal questions o No real cultural fair tests: languages are different, people view time differently, some cultures have less experience with drawings/photographs What Are the Influences of Genetics and Environmental Factors on Intelligence? Genes affect intelligence Heritability: The proportion of observable differences in a group that can be explained by differences in the genes of the group’s members. Estimates put intelligence heritability at as high as 75%; but has been criticized. This is group heritability; does not reflect any single case. Environment has significant impact on heritability, e.g., height and nutrition. Childhood experiences can profoundly affect IQ: Dietary supplements: omega-3 fatty acids Education interventions: can improve IQ of economically disadvantaged young children Interactive reading: asking open-ended questions, encourage reading Preschool: focus on language development had a big effect here Flynn effect: increase of IQ around the world due to education. People high in intelligence 1930~ would be below average now; cannot be hereditary. Must be education What About Extremely High and Low Intelligence? What Happens to Gifted Children? Gifted: Possessing high intelligence (an IQ of 130 or higher) and/or superior talent in a particular area. Flynn effect still in play, their scores continue to increase over time due to education. A combination of heredity and environment D. Khan 19 What Are Thinking, Intelligence, and Language?: What is Intelligence? Stereotypes around gifted children: (1) friendlier, kinder, more conscientious, (2) misfits, less creative, introverted, socially incompetent. What Contributes to Low Intelligence? Low intelligence affects three domains: Conceptual skills: language, reading, writing math, reasoning, memory Social skills: empathy, social judgement, interpersonal communication, making friends Practical: self-management of personal care, job responsibilities, money management, organizing tasks Causes: Organic causes such as genetic disorder (down syndrome). Cultural-familial challenges: mental deficits without organic cause. Due to lack of intellectual environment Are There Multiple Intelligences? Traditionally, intelligence was general ability (g). Others have proposed different types, e.g., emotional. What Are two Theories of Multiple Intelligence? Sternberg develop triarchic theory of intelligence is three forms: analytical ( judge, evaluate), creative (design, invent, originate), and practical (apply, implement, put into practice). Garnder suggests nine types of intelligence he terms: frames of mind. Everyone has varying degrees of: Verbal: ability to think in words and express meaning; author, journalist, speaker Mathematical: carry out mathematical operations; scientist, engineer, accountant Spatial: think three-dimensional; architect, artist, sailor Bodily-kinesthetic: manipulate objects and be physically adept; surgeon, craftsperson, dancer, athlete Musical: sensitive to pitch, melody, rhythm, tone; composer, musician Interpersonal: understand and interact with others; teacher, mental health professional Intrapersonal: understand oneself; theologian, psychologist Naturalist: observe patterns in nature, understand man-made systems; farmer, botanist, ecologist Existentialist: grapple with big questions of human existence, life/death, spiritual; philosopher, religious leader Are There Multiple Types of Intelligence? Criticisms if exists, as people tend high in one area are high in others. Then again, some geniuses express social intelligence issues. Debatable. How Can We Improve Our Cognitive Abilities? Challenging physical activity associated with improved cognitive performance o Exercise battles decline of Alzheimer’s diseases Engaging in complex cognitive tasks improves reasonable ability over time D. Khan 20 What Are Thinking, Intelligence, and Language?: What is Language? 2.4. What is Language? A language is a system of symbols, sounds, meanings, and rules of combination that allows for communication among humans, whether spoken, written, or signed. Human beings are innately predisposed to learning language without the need for their active effort Language is a cultural tool, written language seems to be beneficial; oral traditions seemed to have distinct benefit, but many have naturally been lost; this is why writing it down is important What Are The Basic Properties of Language? Phonology: A language’s sound system comprising of sounds/phonemes (smallest units of sound). Ensure certain sounds, e.g., ch, but not zx (40 in English – about 200 across all language) Infants can already recognize these sounds distinct from other non-language sounds Morphology: A language’s rules for word formation. Morpheme: smallest unit of language that carries meaning. Some words 1 morpheme (help) some 2 (helper). Some cases, sounds can be both phonemes and morphemes (I) Syntax: A language’s rules for combining words to form acceptable phrases and sentences; essentially grammar. What makes sense. Phrases are composed of morphemes and sentences are strings of morphemes and phrases that express a thought or intention. Semantics: The meaning of words and sentences in a particular language. E.g., difference between girl and woman (age) is semantic. They have restriction on how can be used in a sentence. Pragmatics: The useful character of language and the ability of language to communicate even more meaning than is verbalized. You say, “Bus?” and people know you are looking for the bus using your inflection, facial expression, etc. What is the Connection Between Language and Cognition? Debate whether thought is language dependent or independent. How does Language Influence Cognition? Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis: argued that increase in names for something will increase perception of it. E.g., more names of snow by Inuit means they will we be able to see differences better. False because even though men could not distinguish between shades of sweater well, they could learn to Language may influence personality; bilingual folk rated themselves more outgoing and nicer when responding in English vs. Spanish. Moral judgements more lenient in foreign languages as well. How Does Cognition Influence Language? Normally, those with intellectual disability have lower language skills; but not always the case. Williams syndrome is an exception. Complex; increasing evidence that language and thought not necessarily part of a single system. How Do Biology and the Environment Influence Language? NATIVIST Humans acquired language about 100,000 years ago. Likely evolved with toolmaking, when simply watching was no longer enough. Had to tell another. D. Khan 21 What Are Thinking, Intelligence, and Language?: What is Language? Chomsky argued children are born to learn language (all children around the world start speaking at a similar time and in the same order, despite huge variations in language); only affected by trauma o However, no particular area in the brain maps to language acquisition Broca’s area (speech production) sends messages to sensory neurons (representing words) and motor neurons (articulation) to prepare for speaking – but inactive at time of speech itself. How Does the Environment Influence Language? BEHAVIORIST Behaviorists said that language was learned through reinforcement because human beings are a blank slate, e.g., mother being happy with baby saying words and with corrections B.F. Skinner argued that children imitate the utterances of their parents Skinner suggests that children receive differential reinforcement for speech sounds Interactionist We are clearly native language learners, hardwired to learn language when young, & we lose this ability over time; need to be exposed to an actual language but that’s it. Written language is not natural, takes effort. Not true as they learn rapidly, not like learning a complex skill No evidence to assert that social environments carefully reinforce language skills Children who are abused and lack exposure to language do not speak normally o Supports the idea that children are biologically prepared to learn language at a young age How Does Language Develop Over the Lifespan? There are 100 basic phonemes (more but this is a rough estimate) There is a critical period (4-12 months) where there is special awareness of speech sounds Language is the only human skill in which at 1-2 years old, there is mastery of language learning, which only decreases over time 0-6 months Cooing, discrimination of vowels, cowing by 6 6-12 months Babbling includes sounds of, gesturing to objects, first spoken words 10-13 months Words 12-18 months Understands 50+ on average 18-24 months 200 words (vocabulary spurt) Two-word combinations 2 years Vocabulary rapidly increases, correct use of plurals, past tense, and prepositions 3-4 years 3-4 morphemes in a sentence, yes/no/wh- questions, negative and imperatives 5-6 years 10,000 words~ + simple sentences 6-8 years Skilled use of syntax and conversational skills improve 9-11 years Synonym usage D. Khan 22 What Are Thinking, Intelligence, and Language?: How Are Thinking and Problem Solving Related to Health and Wellness? 11-14 years Abstract word, complex forms of grammar, word function in sentence, metaphor and satir 15-20 years Adult literature Receptive vs. productive vocabulary o Receptive is what you know while productive vocabulary is what you can use (much less) Fast Mapping o Hear a word a single time, put it into context (lost at some point just like other language mechanisms) Over and Under-extensions o Lack of schemas, cause over and under connections. Under, e.g., car being anything that moves. Overregularization o E.g., rendering a verb past tense with “ed” but adding it to something like “go” instead of using “went” Non-Verbal Communication Nonverbal communication includes: Vocal intonation: younger generations have difficulty understanding intonation, e.g., sarcasm Body language (crossed arms): defensive postures are not welcoming and inviting Gestures (often involving the hands or fingers): how you walk and talk, people read you based on this o Learned naturally; different in cultures and will have to learn in those cases Physical distance: strangers should be at least 4 feet away (evolutionarily adaptive) o After habituating with people, an individual allows others to get close (proxemics) Facial expressions Touch Critical Periods for Language Acquisition Critical periods assume that an organism must develop a function within a limited time frame or it will not develop at all; e.g., earlier you learn a language, the easier it is to do so Children easily learn second languages, adults have great difficulty; seems to plateau around puberty Isolated children have language impairments: Genie: was isolated as a child and was unable to learn complex language as an adolescent o Feral children (raised by animals) develop their own type of communication using sounds of the animals but they do not understand animal language. 2.5. How Are Thinking and Problem Solving Related to Health and Wellness? Problem Solving Problem solving refers to the process by which we transform one situation into another to meet a goal Problems vary by definition (we are generally bad at defining problems): o Well-defined (e.g., 2+2) versus ill-defined (no clear answer, and are the majority of problems) ▪ Ask if there is a right answer vs. a best answer Strategies of problem solving: o Algorithms are systematic procedures that will produce a solution to a problem (not creative) o Hypothesis testing: make an educated guess about a problem; then test it ▪ Most people are bad scientist and do not function this way well D. Khan 23 What Are Thinking, Intelligence, and Language?: How Are Thinking and Problem Solving Related to Health and Wellness? o Mental simulation: mental rehearsal of the steps needed to solve a problem ▪ Requires analytics; practicing helps Barriers Irrelevant information: paying attention to information does not affect/or constrains unnecessarily Functional fixedness: extending uses of something to beyond its normal restrictions Mental set: tendency to reuse tools used before, do things the same way every time Unnecessary constraints: arbitrary limitations that one places themselves Approaches Algorithms: are essentially correct and better for well-defined problems Heuristics: is a shortcut, can be algorithm or otherwise Forming sub-goals: dividing complex tasks into more manageable tasks Working backward: thinking about the problem in a completely different way Searching for Analogies: what is this like that someone else has solved (ask for help!) Changing the representation of the problem: simply attempting to change the perspective problem The Base Rate Fallacy Fear of flying vs. driving: availability heuristic + novelty o Fears are based on imagination not rationale Anthrax vs. influenza SARS vs. viral encephalitis The Impact of Vivid Events Which of the following are more frequent causes of death in Canada? Homicide or Diabetes Flood or Pneumonia All accidents or Stroke All cancers or heart disease Tornados or Alzheimer’s disease Drowning or Leukemia Motor vehicle accidents or cancer of the digestive system Regression Toward the Average Rookie of the year rarely has a better second season Sports Illustrated Jinx How Do We Think About Stress? Cognitive appraisal: Interpreting the events and experiences in one’s life as harmful and threatening, or as challenging, and determining whether one has the resources to cope effectively. E.g., job interview Coping: Managing taxing circumstances, expending effort to solve life’s problems, & seeking to master/reduce stress. Lazarus said people appraise events in two steps: D. Khan 24 How Do Humans Develop: LEARNING OBJECTIVES Primary appraisal: individuals interpret whether an event involves harm or loss that has already occurred, a threat of some future danger, or a challenge to be overcome. Secondary appraisal: evaluating our resources and determining how effectively they can be used to cope with the event. Rethinking stressors as challenges to be overcome can be good for health and wellness. How Can We Reinterpret Stress? Cognitive reappraisal: Regulating one’s feelings about an experience by reinterpreting that experience or thinking about it in a different way or from a different angle. Benefit finding: looking at stressful event in a good way 3. How Do Humans Develop LEARNING OBJECTIVES 1. Describe the dimensions of human development. 2. Explain critical changes that occur during infancy and childhood. 3. Recognize what happens during adolescence. 4. Recognize what happens during adult development and aging. 5. Define the relationship between human development and health and wellness. 3.1. What is Human Development Development: The pattern of continuity and change in human capabilities that occurs throughout life, involving both growth and decline. Three levels which are all interwoven: Physical changes: biological natures, primarily rely on genes (puberty, menopause, brain complexity, etc.) o Maturation: biological growth process which over time, e.g., baby’s kneecaps from cartilage to bone Cognitive changes: thought, intelligence, language, e.g., recognizing parent’s face, using future tense Socioemotional changes: change in relationship with other people, in emotion and personality. E.g., infant smile to mother’s touch, adolescent making friend, older couple affection. What Are Cross-Sectional and Longitudinal Research Methods? Cannot randomly assign age, so two techniques used to study this: Cross-sectional studies: different ages assessed at one time and differences noted, e.g., IQ across ages. o Cohort effect: (possible issue) difference may not be due to age, due to time period they were born Longitudinal studies: assess same participants multiple times over a lengthy period. Measure IQ every year. o Require lots of time and money. Also, other things change over time like technology. o Attrition: phenomenon of people to drop of out long-term studies systemically, leaving a specific subset of the whole group, e.g., everyone remaining in healthier. Combination is sequential studies: Examine different age groups at multiple time points (reduce cohort effects) How Nature and Nature Influence Development? Nature: An individual’s biological inheritance, especially their genes. D. Khan 25 How Do Humans Develop: What is Human Development Nurture: An individual’s environmental and social experiences. Everything is nature or nurture; it is never only one. However, it is going to vary which one is more. Some exceptions: eye color is genetic (nature). o This is studied by studying identical twins (same genotype) or fraternal twins (50% same DNA) o Adoption studies where similarities with original family demonstrate nurture o Each genotype has a range of phenotypes depending on environmental factors Maturation: Refers to biologically determined changes that follow an orderly/set sequence. Not set in stone. General ages and stages. What is Your Role in Development? Can develop genetic inheritance; key part of development is to seek optimal experiences in life. Helps develop life themes (activities, life goal, social relationships etc.) Are Early or Later Life Experience More Important in Development? Both early and later experiences make significant help for development. Need: Resilience: A person’s ability to recover from or adapt to difficult times. Helps tackle hard times. Critical Periods Critical period concept suggests that the brain is set to acquire a function during a limited period of time. If key experiences do not occur during a critical time period, the function may not develop or may not be fully developed Case of Genie, a girl who was isolated until the age of 13. Although Genie made some gains in language, her syntax never approached normal levels. The case of Genie supports a critical period for language acquisition We also have critical periods for negative experiences, which will have the highest-level damage at that time. For example, measles can cause mental retardation if contracted during certain fetal periods D. Khan 26 How Do Humans Develop: What Do We Know About Child Development? 3.2. What Do We Know About Child Development? What Happens During Prenatal Development? Conception occurs when a single sperm cell from the male merges with the female’s ovum (egg) to produce a zygote (a single cell with 23 chromosomes from mother and 23 from the father). What Are the Periods of Prenatal Development? Geminal period (weeks 1 & 2): zygote made up of 100-150 cells through cell division. Attaches to uterine wall. If attached to tube it is termed ectopic and is fatal for the mother. o Most women will not know they were pregnant at this time and they can randomly end 20%~ Embryonic period (weeks 3-8): cell division increases, organs start to appear. 3rd week neural tube states to take shape, 4 weeks its formed. At the end of this period, heart beats, arms and legs become differentiated, face starts to form, and intestinal tract appears. Fetal period (weeks 3-birth): fetus is the size of a kidney; over time it grows to final size till end. o Longest pregnancy is 11 months, shortest is 22 weeks (majority do not make it, most likely due to lack/messed up brain development at this time) What Are the Threats to the Development of the Fetus? Teratogen: any agent that causes a birth defect. The body part/organ developing when taking it is most vulnerable. Fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASD): cluster of abnormalities due to drinking while pregnant. Can lead to small head, defects in limbs, heart, and in IQ. Even moderate drinking can have an effect. Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs): can be transferred during delivery, e.g., gonorrhea, HIV, syphilis, increases risk of stillbirth, eye infection, blindness Crack Cocaine: Fetal exposure to cocaine alters motor and emotional development Smoking: another teratogen, correlated with SIDS, ADHD, allergies, slower cognitive development Illnesses: flu might be correlated with getting schizophrenia Medicines: thalidomide given to deal with morning sickness but caused infants without limbs Malnutrition: causes the most problems in development in children around the worlds What Do We Know About Infant and Child Development? Most helpless newborns compared to animals, due to brain size. Have to send out baby before brain is fully developed or would be impossible to exit. What Reflexes Are Present at Birth? Reflexes are innate motor responses elicited by critical stimuli: suck and swallow, coughing, blinking, yawning, naturally hold breath in water, and even move arm and legs to stay afloat, stick out arms when dropped. o Rooting reflex important for infant to move mouth to source of touch so it can suckle o Suckling reflect is tactile stimulation of the mouth produces rhythmic sucking D. Khan 27 How Do Humans Develop: What Do We Know About Child Development? What Motor and Perceptual Skills Do Infants Have? Head is gigantic compared to body in the beginning and cannot control it. Within 12 months, infant can sit, stand, climb, and usually walk. The timeline is based on genetics + experience. Also can be changed by culture. Between 3-5 months: Sensory capacities: being able to see or hear the object Motivation: wanting to grasp the object Attention: being able to focus on a particular thing, among all the other things in the baby's world Bodily control: ability to control posture, manage head movement, calibrate the movement of one's arms Learning: getting positive reinforcement from the experience of touching the object of their desire Actively participating in behaviors strongly influences infant development, but gain motor skills by watching as well. Cultures which swaddled or bounded reached motor milestones later; culture alters development It is difficult to study infant perception because they cannot express themselves. One thing to note is preferential looking: A research technique that involves giving an infant a choice of what object to look at. If they prefer to look at something over another (using eye-tracking), it is clear they can tell things a part. Can do this early as 7 days old. Visual acuity: the eye’s ability to focus on details of objects at a given distance. Improves rapidly over first few months and requires visual experience to support development. How Do Infant’s Brains Develop? At birth and infancy, the 85 billion neurons have limited connected; in 2 years, dendrites branch out a lot. Continues into adolescence and adulthood. D. Khan 28 How Do Humans Develop: What Do We Know About Child Development? (1) Synaptic connections increase dramatically and (2) connections strengthen. Many are made, only strengthened ones are kept. Genes do not have enough room to encode for all the instructions needed, so excess connections are made, and the ones that are not used are eliminated. Some brain areas can double within a year up to the age of 4, followed by loss of tissue where unneeded cells are purged. From 3-6 most growth happens in frontal lobe area (planning, organizing new actions, maintaining attention). New experiences help development o Lack of experiences (orphaned/impoverished) has detrimental impact on brain development. Reduction in both grey matter and white matter, leading to developmental delays. How Does Cognition Develop in Infancy and Childhood? Cognitive Development: how thought, intelligence, and language processes change as people age. Cognition: how people think, their cognitive skills and abilities. What is Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development? Jean Piaget (1896-1980) Swiss development psychologist, posited the most important theory for this. Children construct their cognitive world as they go through stages. Use schemas (organized patterns of thought or behavior) to make sense of their experiences. E.g., sucking, blowing, crawling, licking. Later in life, more complex schemas arise. As child develops, schemas evolve. Assimilation: An individual’s incorporation of new information into existing knowledge. Using existing schemas to process new info. Infants suck on everything as that is their schema. E.g., all 4-legged animals are dogs. Accommodation: An individual’s adjustment of their schemas to new information. Updating and creating new schemas. Infants eventually stop sucking on everything, new strategy employed. E.g., a horse is not a dog. D. Khan 29 How Do Humans Develop: What Do We Know About Child Development? What is the Sensorimotor Stage? Sensorimotor stage: Piaget’s first stage of cognitive development, lasting from birth to about 2 years of age, during which infants construct an understanding of the world by coordinating sensory experiences with motor (physical) actions: sensation and movement. They think with their eyes, ears, hands, etc. End of this stage they start using words. Most important thing is to synchronize senses at this time. Object permanence (major milestone sensorimotor): Piaget’s term for the crucial accomplishment of understanding that objects and events continue to exist even when they cannot be seen, heard, or touched. o Permanence of their caregiver is recognized much earlier (5 months) Different time for different things What is the Preoperational Stage? Preoperational stage: Piaget’s second stage of cognitive development, lasting from about 2 to 7 years of age, during which thought is more symbolic than sensorimotor thought. CANNOT yet to understand operations. Operations: Piaget’s term for mental representations of changes in objects that can be reversed. For example, rolling up a sweater to pack it; you know you can unroll it back to normal (they lack reversibility). Well known test is to fill different (tall and short) shaped containers with the water from the other and ask which has more. Preoperational stage always says the taller one, even though they both take the same amount of water. Due to lack of understand of conservation: the permanence of certain attributes of objects despite superficial changes. Different ages for different conservation properties: volume, mass, area, and number. Animism: they tend to give human qualities to non-human things. Egocentric: at this stage egocentric because they cannot put themselves in other’s shoes. Children have literal visual egocentrism; they think people see exactly what they see. This type of thinking is intuitive, on gut feelings not logic. D. Khan 30 How Do Humans Develop: What Do We Know About Child Development? What Is the Concrete Operational Stage? Concrete operational stage: Piaget’s third stage of cognitive development, lasting from about 7 to 11 years of age, during which the individual uses operations and replaces intuitive reasoning with logical reasoning in concrete situations. They can perform operations and reversal. They decentralize/lose egotism and lose animism. Can classify things, use hierarchies, consider interrelations, identifying objects in a group. No hypotheticals. What Is the Formal Operational Stage? Formal operational stage: Piaget’s fourth stage of cognitive development, which begins at 11 to 15 years of age and continues through the adult years; it features thinking about things that are not concrete, making predictions, and using logic to come up with hypotheses about the future – purely abstract possibilities. Think more logically. Idealistic: comparing how are, to how they might be. Hypothetical-deductive reasoning: ability to devise plans, solve problems, and test solutions Identity creation (normal to rebel), role confusion (experimentation leading to healthy identity creation) o If people force/tell you what to do, it can lead to identity confusion and personality problems How Has Piaget’s Theory Been Challenged? Overestimated cognitive skills of adolescents and adults. Formal operational thought does not emerge as consistently/universally as imagined. Underestimated the cognitive capacities of young children; cognitive abilities emerge earlier than imagined Relied heavily on his own children to make conclusions Did not account for development in adulthood What Do Young Infants Know? Infants as young as 3 months can develop object permanence Can have sophisticated expectations about the world What is Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Cognitive Theory? Piaget assumed that all a child needed was active interaction with the physical world to go through the development. Vygotsky (1962) took a different approach; that it is an interpersonal process in a cultural context. Learn through dialogue with more knowledgeable people (parents and teachers). Scaffolding building children’s cognitive abilities through interacting with them just about the level of sophistication they have. Teachers and parents share custom, language, culture to child. D. Khan 31 How Do Humans Develop: What Do We Know About Child Development? Parental scaffolding is effective when follows child’s lead, helps to manage frustrations, and grants autonomy What Is Information Processing Theory? Focuses on how individuals encode, manipulate, monitor information, and create strategies to handle it. Focus on emergence of autobiographical memory Development of working memory: mental workspace for problem solving. o Working memory in preschool predicted high school dropout rates. Executive function: Higher-order, complex cognitive processes, including thinking, planning, and problem solving. For preschoolers, this is setting goals, self-control, and foregoing immediate pleasures for better ones. o Executive function linked to school readiness; predicts development of social cognitive abilities. o Higher executive function: less risk taking, decreased dropout rates, less drug use, better physical and psychological health, better earning, and less criminal behavior up to 30 years later. o Parents who model EF promote skills for children; aerobic exercise, mindfulness training What Underlies the Socioemotional Development of Infants and Children? Human beings are emotionally different; raw ingredients are temperament and attachment. What Is Temperament? Temperament: An individual’s behavioural style and characteristic ways of responding. Three basic types (Thomas): Easy child: positive mood, establishes routines, adapts to new experiences; easily soothed/fed Difficult child: react negatively, cry frequently, engage in irregular routines, slow to accept new experiences. Slow-to-warmup child: low activity level, somewhat negative, inflexible, cautious of new experience. Other temperaments: Effortful control/self-regulation: controlling arousal and not being agitated Inhibition: being shy and showing distress in novelty Positive and negative affectivity: tendency to be happy/even-tempered vs. sad/frustrated These form the basis of your temperament at age 10, which reflects your temperament as an adult. What is Attachment? Infants need nutrition, shelter, warm social interactions. Infant attachment: The close emotional bond between an infant and its caregiver. Ainsworth conducted an experiment to determine attachment styles. Parent left child with stranger and then returned. Infant typically cries, and time to soothe again is noted. Infant’s response is used to classify their attachment styles. Secure attachment: The ways that infants use their caregiver, usually their mother, as a secure base from which to explore the environment. Infant is soothed quickly, acclimates to playing again. o Demonstrates that the infants’ needs are being met. Insecure attachment: Infants do not use the caregiver as a secure base from which to explore; instead, they experience their relationship with the caregiver as unstable and unreliable. The two types of insecure attachment are avoidant and anxious/ambivalent (also called preoccupied). D. Khan 32 How Do Humans Develop: What Do We Know About Child Development? o Anxious-ambivalent: “what’s wrong with you for leaving me” + “I need you” baby is anxious, it does not know if its needs will be met and affects its personality later on as well o Avoidant: baby does not cry as caregiver is not providing any safety/needs to child whatsoever. Criticisms: does not account for cultural variations (many attachments in other cultures); does not consider infant temperament; and genetic relationship effects on attachment. What is Erikson’s Theory of Socioemotional Development? He viewed socioemotional development as a lifelong process. Two possible outcomes: (1) greater strength and competence or (2) greater weakness and vulnerability. Depends on whether needs met. 1. Trust vs. Mistrust (1st year): If needs are met consistently there is trust, otherwise mistrust 2. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (2 - 3): Trust leads to autonomy (own person, confidence), but mistrust leads to shame and doubt (criticism) 3. Initiative vs. Guilt (4-6): Autonomous kids develop initiative, persevere; some develop guilt (I’m not good enough) 4. Industry vs. Inferiority (6 - puberty): Industry due to reinforced learning; but the other side is feeling inferior, 5. Identity vs. Confusion (Adolescence): Whether one is able to create their own identity or not 6. Intimacy vs. Isolation (Early adulthood): Focusing on family vs. doing your own things 7. Generativity vs. Self-Absorption (Middle adult): Helping others, charitable, etc. vs. middle life crisis 8. Integrity vs. Despair (Late adulthood): Deathbed, regret vs feeling fulfilled D. Khan 33 How Do Humans Develop: What Do We Know About Child Development? What Are Erikson’s Stages of Socioemotional Development During Infancy and Childhood? Four childhood stages: Trust versus mistrust (birth to 18 months): trust built when basic needs met. Caregivers must establish that the world is a predictable and friendly place; so toddlers become independent. Autonomy versus shame and doubt (18m – 3y): either develop positive sense of independence and autonomy, or negative feelings of shame and doubt. Autonomy leads to independence, evident in their saying “no” and “I can do it myself”. Initiative versus guilt (3y – 5y): forge own interests, friendships, and responsibilities which leads to initiative. Industry versus inferiority (6y – puberty): achieve industry by mastering knowledge and intellectual skills, or they feel inferior. Industry: gaining competence in academic skills, ability to be disciplined and work hard. How Has Erikson’s Theory Been Challenged? Based on case study so limitations. Only focuses on specific tasks, omits other important tasks. Does not appreciate challenges that women and people with disabilities face. How Do Parenting Styles Influence Childhood Socioemotional Development? Authoritarian parenting: A restrictive, punitive style in which the parent exhorts the child to follow the parent’s directions, “My way or else”. These children have bad social skills, poor initiative, and compare themselves with others. In some cultural, this type of parenting is respected and negative outcomes are not seen. Authoritative parenting: A parenting style that encourages the child to be independent but that still places limits and controls on behaviour. Verbal back and forth encouraged; parents are warm and nurturing. The children are socially competent, self-reliant, and socially responsible. Neglectful parenting: A parenting style characterized by a lack of parental involvement in the child’s life. Children less competent socially, bad independence, and especially poor self-control. Permissive parenting: A parenting style characterized by the placement of few limits on the child’s behaviour. Let children do whatever they want. Some do this on purpose thinking coupling this with warm care will create socially strong children. However, these children tend to rate poorly in social competence, they fail to learn to respect others, are selfish, and have difficulty controlling their behaviour. What Does Moral Development Look Like in Childhood? What is Kohlberg’s Theory? He believed that moral development advanced with maturation of thought, availability of role taking, and chance to discuss moral issues with people in higher stages. Three general levels: 1. Preconventional: moral reasoning based on consequences, e.g., punishments and reward 2. Conventional: abides by standards learned through parents or by society’s law 3. Postconventional: recognizes alternative moral courses, explores options, develops a personal moral code D. Khan 34 How Do Humans Develop: What Happens During Adolescence? How Has Kohlberg’s Theory Been Challenged? Moral reasoning does not mean moral behavior; their behavior might be cheating, lying, etc. even when speaking morally. Thieves know what the right thing to do is, but show moral disengagement by justifying their actions; allows them to act unethically but still feel moral minimizing guilt. Culture also influences morality of an individual. Western cultures tend to be individualistic while Asian cultures tend to be the opposite; which act differently. Also overestimates role of logical reasoning in moral judgements; missed emotional and intuitive role What Are Current Views of Moral Development? Moral foundations that people take into account as they consider moral issues: Care: kindness/compassion and avoiding harm to others Fairness: trying to be fair for all involved Loyalty: consider allegiance to groups and act accordingly Authority: what their leaders believe and seek to obey them Purity: is it noble or disgusting/animalistic Prosocial behaviour: Behaviour intended to benefit other people. Supportive parenting and monitoring promote increased helping of others. Capacity to help others also reflects self-control. Reflects presence of conscience. Kind moral children are more likely to be kind moral adults. 3.3. What Happens During Adolescence? Developmental period between childhood and adult. Early stage (10-12), middle (13-15), late (16-19). How Do Adolescents Develop Physically? How Do We Change During Puberty? Puberty: period of rapid skeletal and sexual maturation that occurs in early adolescence with hormonal changes. Androgens: The class of sex hormones that predominate in males, produced by the testes in males and by the adrenal glands in both males and females. o Testosterone: type of androgen predominate in males, develops genital, increase height, voice change Estrogens: The class of sex hormones that predominate in females, produced mainly by the ovaries (estradiol) o Estradiol: breast, uterine, and skeletal development. Early puberty can have different affects on genders. Maturing early means different things; in: Boys: more positive outcomes, more popular, higher self-esteem Girls: less likely to engage in academic pursuit, more likely to be sexually active, and engage in unsafe sex o Partly due to use of drugs/alcohol. Girls have a more difficult time maturing Transgender youth: report discrimination, bullying, and violence due to their identity. Hormone blockers may be used to delay puberty and irreversible gender-noncongruent physical changes. D. Khan 35 How Do Humans Develop: What Happens During Adolescence? How Does the Brain Change During Adolescence? Amygdalae, responsible more emotions, matures early. Prefrontal cortex does not fully develop till 25. Often means adolescents are very emotional without being able to control it; more likely to take risks/be impulsive. Experiences can affect the brain. E.g., resisting peer pressure correlated with prefrontal cortex thickening. How Does Cognition Develop in Adolescence? Can think about multiple possibilities, understand abstract ideas (politics/religion), monitor their own thoughts. Adolescent egocentrism: belief that everyone is as focused on them as they are. E.g., everyone’s watching me Thinking they are invincible due to underestimating risks What Underlies the Socioemotional Development of Adolescents? What Is the Key Challenge of Adolescence? Recall Erikson’s fifth stage: identity versus identity confusion Adolescents are supposed to figure out who they are when confronted with many options, jobs, careers, friends, roman relationships, etc. If they do not, will have identity confusion; either withdrawing from friends/family or disappearing into the crowd. What is Marcia’s Theory of Identity Status? Marcia proposed the concept of identity status, which is development of identity. Needs exploration (investigation various options) and commitment (deciding which path to follow). Active process and takes some experimentation. How Does Your Ethnicity Impact Your Identity? Adolescents from minority groups become aware how the culture views them. Face biculturalism/multiculturism, identifying some ways to the minority culture and some to the majority. Feeling a positive attachment for both minority and majority groups has positive outcomes How Do Parents and Peers Influence or Development? How Do Parenting Styles Influence Development? If parents are effective managers (locates info, makes contract, helps structure choice, provides guidance), help adolescents make their way. Also includes watching social circles, activities, and academic efforts. Parent monitoring decreases delinquency among high-risk youth. Vigilant care: for parent to be flexible in their child’s life, allowing them to explore while keeping an eye out How Do Peer Relationships Influence Development? Adolescents speed more time with the peer than before. Can be positive or negative effects. Can learn how to skilled and sensitive people, but also learn substance abuse, delinquent behavior, and even depression. Tend to take more risks, especially around other peers. D. Khan 36 How Do Humans Develop: What Happens During Adult Development 3.4. What Happens During Adult Development Three periods: Early adulthood (20s and 30s) Middle adulthood (40s and 50s) Later adulthood (60+) What Are the Main Features of Emerging Adulthood? A transitionary period between adolescence and adulthood due to partially putting off adulthood; varies by culture. Emerging adulthood: The transitional period from adolescence to adulthood, spanning approximately between 18-25. Five key features (Arnett): Identity exploration, especially in love and work: many changes in this time Instability: changes peak in this time, often instability in love, work, education Self-focus: limited social obligations, duties, and commitments – lots of autonomy Feeling “in between”: many do not consider themselves adolescents nor adults Age of possibilities, time of transformation: o Optimistic about their future o Those who experienced difficult times can guide their lives positively How Do We Physically Change During Adulthood? What Physical Changes Occur in Early Adulthood? Reach their physical peak in 20s. 30s decline in strength and speed Perceptual abilities also decline (hearing loss can start at 18) What Physical Changes in Middle and Late Adulthood? Skin begins to wrinkle and sag, age spots (especially in areas exposed to sunlight, like face/hands), hair becomes thinner, lose height, gain weight, age-related issues Women experience menopause in late 40s early 50s – menses completely stops. Estrogen production declines heavily creating hot flashes, nausea fatigue, rapid heartbeat. Strength declines, motor speed slows down, bones more brittle, general slow repair of damage To prevent decline in vision, use sunglasses; to protect skin use sunblock and hats, for hearing avoid long-duration loud noises. Healthy diets and exercise can compensate cognitive decline. Selective Optimization with Compensation: adults match their current abilities with their goals/activities. As you get older, you may stop driving and instead become an expert in transit. D. Khan 37 How Do Humans Develop: What Happens During Adult Development What Are the Main Theories of Aging? What is the Cellular-Clock Theory? Hayflick (1977): theory that cells divide a maximum number of times. As you age, cells become less capable of dividing; eventually stop dividing around 120 years of age. Might be due to telomeres which are at the ends of chromosomes. After enough divisions, they are dramatically reduced and unable to reproduce. What is the Free-Radical Theory? Frailty of age is because of unstable oxyge