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Questions and Answers

What are subgoals in problem-solving strategies?

Shortcuts that guarantee a problem's solution.

Final goals developed for immediate solutions.

Generalized assumptions based on past experiences.

Intermediate goals devised to reach a final goal. (correct)

What defines an algorithm in problem-solving?

An observational method that makes generalizations.

A formula or set of instructions to find a guaranteed solution. (correct)

A method that guarantees the most efficient solution.

A principle followed with uncertainty of the solution.

Which statement best describes functional fixedness?

The tendency to be stuck on the usual function of an object. (correct)

The use of prior strategies to find innovative solutions.

The ability to rethink problems from a fresh perspective.

The mental flexibility to apply different problem-solving methods.

What is the primary difference between inductive and deductive reasoning?

Inductive reasoning draws general conclusions from specific instances. Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of decision making in reasoning?

It evaluates options without known consequences. Signup and view all the answers

What is fixation in problem-solving?

The inability to approach a problem from a new perspective. Signup and view all the answers

What typically characterizes heuristics in problem-solving?

Guidelines or shortcuts that suggest probable solutions. Signup and view all the answers

How do effective problem solvers approach solutions over time?

By revisiting and adjusting strategies as needed. Signup and view all the answers

What is primary appraisal in the context of stress evaluation?

Interpreting an event for potential harm, threat, or challenge Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following accurately describes cognitive reappraisal?

Regulating feelings by thinking differently about an experience Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes longitudinal studies from cross-sectional studies in research?

Longitudinal studies track the same participants multiple times Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary focus of socioemotional changes during human development?

Changes in relationships and emotions Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a dimension of human development?

Emotional maturity Signup and view all the answers

What is meant by benefit finding in the context of stress management?

Identifying positive aspects in stressful events Signup and view all the answers

What can be a potential issue in cross-sectional studies known as the cohort effect?

Differences may stem from generational influences rather than age Signup and view all the answers

What does maturation refer to in the realm of physical changes during human development?

A gradual biological growth process over time Signup and view all the answers

What type of amnesia affects the retention of new information and events?

Anterograde amnesia Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT one of the 'Seven Sins of Memory'?

Absentmindedness Signup and view all the answers

What is the best strategy to enhance memory retention according to the science of memory?

Making connections and finding meaning Signup and view all the answers

What is an important method for active reading?

Doing readings prior to lectures Signup and view all the answers

How does organizing information impact academic performance?

It improves performance by making memorization easier Signup and view all the answers

What should be done to ensure comprehension when reading?

Ask heading questions out loud during the reading Signup and view all the answers

Which failure related to absentmindedness typically occurs under pressure?

All of the above Signup and view all the answers

Which action is recommended to improve note-taking efficiency?

Reviewing notes routinely Signup and view all the answers

What is a key factor in improving mental resilience against various health issues?

High levels of physical activity Signup and view all the answers

How do concepts aid in the efficiency of memory?

They allow for grouping and association of experiences. Signup and view all the answers

What does the prototype model emphasize?

Items are categorized based on their most common features. Signup and view all the answers

What is the first step in problem-solving?

Recognizing and defining the problem Signup and view all the answers

Which statement best describes thinking?

The act of manipulating information mentally. Signup and view all the answers

In what way does actively engaging in life contribute to mental health?

It ensures life is rich and nuanced. Signup and view all the answers

How does cultural fairness affect intelligence testing?

It promotes inclusivity and accurate assessment of diverse backgrounds. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of concepts?

They are always based on real objects. Signup and view all the answers

What is the main focus of Erikson's fifth stage, identity versus identity confusion?

Exploration of personal identity among various options Signup and view all the answers

What does Marcia's Theory of Identity Status emphasize as critical in identity development?

Exploration and commitment to a singular choice Signup and view all the answers

Which factor helps adolescents from minority groups develop their identity positively?

Positive attachment to both minority and majority groups Signup and view all the answers

Which parenting style is associated with effective management of adolescent development?

Flexible parenting that fosters exploration Signup and view all the answers

How do peer relationships typically influence adolescent behavior?

They can result in both positive and negative behaviors Signup and view all the answers

What are the three recognized periods of adult development?

Early adulthood, middle adulthood, and later adulthood Signup and view all the answers

What is a key characteristic of the period referred to as 'emerging adulthood'?

A transitional phase between adolescence and adulthood Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following describes a common outcome of vigilant parenting?

Supportive guidance while allowing exploration Signup and view all the answers

What is a characteristic of automatic (system 1) thinking?

It relies on rapid, intuitive judgments. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following describes the sunk cost fallacy?

The reluctance to abandon a project due to previous investments. Signup and view all the answers

What does confirmation bias lead individuals to do?

Only pay attention to information that supports their existing views. Signup and view all the answers

What is meant by base rate neglect?

Ignoring general statistical information for specific instances. Signup and view all the answers

Which bias is characterized by reporting false certainty after an event has occurred?

Hindsight bias Signup and view all the answers

The availability heuristic impacts decisions based on what factor?

Recent experiences that are easy to recall. Signup and view all the answers

What does the effort heuristic imply about children's predictions?

Their predictions are often influenced by how hard they wish to try. Signup and view all the answers

What does the bias blind spot refer to?

The inability to identify one’s own biases while spotting others'. Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

1. What is Memory?

Memory is the retention of information or experiences over time, involving encoding, storage, and retrieval.
Encoding: taking in information, storage: storing it mentally or physically, retrieval: retrieving it later.
Memory can involve multiple systems and levels of awareness (e.g., alert, sleepy) and consciousness.

1.1. Nature of Memory

Three key memory processes: encoding, storage, and retrieval.
Memory processes involve receiving, storing, and recalling sensory information.
Smell and taste are experienced perceptually but not encoded via memory systems the same way other senses are. Encoding occurs for sights and sounds. Storage is a metaphorical mental idea of a storehouse. Retrieval is the goal of finding the stored information later.

1.2. Memory Encoding

Encoding is the first step in memory, involving the process of getting information into memory storage.
Some encoding is automatic, other require effort.
Attention is a key factor in encoding, as only what is attended to is encoded.
Cognitive capacity is around 120 bits per second.
Spotlight analogy: refers to different levels of awareness.
Conscious awareness (like a spotlight) increases memory retention when focused on something.

Levels of Processing

Fergus Craik and Robert Lockhart proposed a continuum of memory processing from shallow to deep.
Deeper processing results in better memory.
Shallow processing: remembering the shape/color of letters in a word.
Intermediate processing: remembering the word.
Deep processing: drawing meaning from the word- connecting it with personal experience.

1.3. Elaboration

Elaboration involves forming numerous interconnections around a memory.
Self-referencing: connecting material to one's own experience.
Repetition (rehearsal and over-learning) can enhance memory, but over-learning may not lead to any further improvement
Deep/meaningful processing produces better memory

1.4. Memory Storage Models

Atkinson-Shiffrin's theory proposes three separate memory systems: sensory, short-term, and long-term.
Sensory memory registers store sensory information very briefly (iconic + echoic).
Short-term memory (STM) stores small amounts of information for a short time (30 seconds), relying on rehearsal to keep info from fading.
Long-term memory (LTM) has an unlimited capacity to store information for extended periods (possibly a lifetime).

1.5. Chunking and Rehearsal

Chunking involves organizing smaller bits of information into larger, meaningful units.
Rehearsal involves conscious repetition to keep information in short-term memory.

1.6. Working Memory

Working memory (an active memory system) combines short-term memory and attention to manipulate and assemble information for tasks.

1.7. Long-Term Memory

Long-term memory (LTM) is a type of memory that stores large amounts of information for an extended period of time.
Explicit memory includes episodic and semantic.
Implicit memory includes procedural, priming, and classical conditioning memory.

###2. What is Memory Retrieval?

Retrieval is the process of bringing stored information from memory into conscious awareness.
Encoding specificity principle: the ease of retrieving a memory depends on the match between the encoding and retrieval contexts. (E.g. environment, mood, emotional state).
Retrieval cues: stimuli that help retrieve a particular memory.
Recall vs. recognition: recall requires retrieving the entire memory, while recognition involves identifying learned items.

2.1. Context-Dependent Memory

Context-dependent memory is the ability to recall information better when in the same context it was learned in.

2.2. Autobiographical Memories

Autobiographical memories are specific memories of events from one's personal life.
Reminiscence bump: tendency for adults to remember more events from their 20s and 30s

2.3. Emotional Memories

Emotions strongly impact encoding and retrieval.
Flashbulb memories are vivid recollections of emotionally significant events.

3. Why Do We Forget?

Encoding failure: failure to encode info in the first place
Retrieval failure: inability to access stored information.
Interference: competing information interferes with the retrieval of target information. Proactive and retroactive

4, How Do We Study Memory?

Various research methods.
Case studies on individuals.
Experiments in labs.

5. What Are Thinking, Intelligence, and Language?

Cognition: processing info involved in remembering, thinking, and knowing
Concepts are mental categories that organize and make sense of info

6. What is Problem Solving

Problem solving involves identifying a goal and finding an appropriate way to reach that goal.

6.1. Problem Solving Strategies

Algorithm: a step-by-step strategy that is guaranteed to find a solution.
Heuristic: a strategy that will often but not always lead to a solution. Subgoals; working backward; analogical reasoning

6.2. What Interferes with Problem Solving?

Fixation: using a prior strategy.
Functional fixedness: inability to view objects through alternative functions. Base rate fallacy

6.3. Reasoning and Decision Making

Inductive reasoning: move from specific observations to general conclusions
Deductive reasoning: moves from general statements to specific conclusions.
Decision making: evaluating alternatives and choosing among them

6.4. Types of Thinking

Divergent thinking: generate many solutions
Convergent: generate one best solution

7. How Can We Improve Critical and Creative Thinking?

Critical thinking: examining ideas, recognizing bias, actively evaluating info
Creative thinking: generate innovative ideas, flexible thinking, willingness to take risk, objective evaluation

8. Intelligence

Intelligence is all-purpose abilities to solve problems and learn.
Types of intelligence (e.g., analytical, creative, practical).
Theories of multiple intelligences (e.g., Gardner's eight intelligences)
Measuring intelligence (e.g. IQ tests) and standardized testing (standardization, validity, reliability)

9. Language

Language is a communication system using symbols, sounds, meanings, and rules of combination.
Language components include phonology, morphology, syntax, and semantics.

10. How do Humans Develop?

Prenatal development: stages are germinal, embryonic, and fetal. Impact of teratogens.
Infancy & early childhood: development of motor and perceptual skills. Object permanence develops.
Piaget's stages of cognitive development: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, formal operational.
Vygotsky's sociocultural theory: learning from interactions with those skilled in a task/culture. Zone of proximal development.
Temperament, attachment, play.
Socioemotional development: Erikson's stages (trust vs. mistrust, autonomy vs shame & doubt, initiative vs guilt, etc.)
Adolescence: physical changes, cognitive changes, social emotional development. (Marcia's Identity statuses)
Emerging Adulthood: transition period between adolescence & adulthood.
Adult development: physical and cognitive changes throughout adulthood.

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