Untitled Quiz

1. What is Memory?

• Memory is the retention of information or experiences over time, involving encoding, storage, and retrieval.
• Encoding: taking in information, storage: storing it mentally or physically, retrieval: retrieving it later.
• Memory can involve multiple systems and levels of awareness (e.g., alert, sleepy) and consciousness.

1.1. Nature of Memory

• Three key memory processes: encoding, storage, and retrieval.
• Memory processes involve receiving, storing, and recalling sensory information.
• Smell and taste are experienced perceptually but not encoded via memory systems the same way other senses are. Encoding occurs for sights and sounds. Storage is a metaphorical mental idea of a storehouse. Retrieval is the goal of finding the stored information later.

1.2. Memory Encoding

• Encoding is the first step in memory, involving the process of getting information into memory storage.
• Some encoding is automatic, other require effort.
• Attention is a key factor in encoding, as only what is attended to is encoded.
• Cognitive capacity is around 120 bits per second.
• Spotlight analogy: refers to different levels of awareness.
• Conscious awareness (like a spotlight) increases memory retention when focused on something.

Levels of Processing

• Fergus Craik and Robert Lockhart proposed a continuum of memory processing from shallow to deep.
• Deeper processing results in better memory.
• Shallow processing: remembering the shape/color of letters in a word.
• Intermediate processing: remembering the word.
• Deep processing: drawing meaning from the word- connecting it with personal experience.

1.3. Elaboration

• Elaboration involves forming numerous interconnections around a memory.
• Self-referencing: connecting material to one's own experience.
• Repetition (rehearsal and over-learning) can enhance memory, but over-learning may not lead to any further improvement
• Deep/meaningful processing produces better memory

1.4. Memory Storage Models

• Atkinson-Shiffrin's theory proposes three separate memory systems: sensory, short-term, and long-term.
• Sensory memory registers store sensory information very briefly (iconic + echoic).
• Short-term memory (STM) stores small amounts of information for a short time (30 seconds), relying on rehearsal to keep info from fading.
• Long-term memory (LTM) has an unlimited capacity to store information for extended periods (possibly a lifetime).

1.5. Chunking and Rehearsal

• Chunking involves organizing smaller bits of information into larger, meaningful units.
• Rehearsal involves conscious repetition to keep information in short-term memory.

1.6. Working Memory

• Working memory (an active memory system) combines short-term memory and attention to manipulate and assemble information for tasks.

1.7. Long-Term Memory

• Long-term memory (LTM) is a type of memory that stores large amounts of information for an extended period of time.
• Explicit memory includes episodic and semantic.
• Implicit memory includes procedural, priming, and classical conditioning memory.

###2. What is Memory Retrieval?

• Retrieval is the process of bringing stored information from memory into conscious awareness.
• Encoding specificity principle: the ease of retrieving a memory depends on the match between the encoding and retrieval contexts. (E.g. environment, mood, emotional state).
• Retrieval cues: stimuli that help retrieve a particular memory.
• Recall vs. recognition: recall requires retrieving the entire memory, while recognition involves identifying learned items.

2.1. Context-Dependent Memory

• Context-dependent memory is the ability to recall information better when in the same context it was learned in.

2.2. Autobiographical Memories

• Autobiographical memories are specific memories of events from one's personal life.
• Reminiscence bump: tendency for adults to remember more events from their 20s and 30s

2.3. Emotional Memories

• Emotions strongly impact encoding and retrieval.
• Flashbulb memories are vivid recollections of emotionally significant events.

3. Why Do We Forget?

• Encoding failure: failure to encode info in the first place
• Retrieval failure: inability to access stored information.
• Interference: competing information interferes with the retrieval of target information. Proactive and retroactive

4, How Do We Study Memory?

• Various research methods.
• Case studies on individuals.
• Experiments in labs.

5. What Are Thinking, Intelligence, and Language?

• Cognition: processing info involved in remembering, thinking, and knowing
• Concepts are mental categories that organize and make sense of info

6. What is Problem Solving

• Problem solving involves identifying a goal and finding an appropriate way to reach that goal.

6.1. Problem Solving Strategies

• Algorithm: a step-by-step strategy that is guaranteed to find a solution.
• Heuristic: a strategy that will often but not always lead to a solution. Subgoals; working backward; analogical reasoning

6.2. What Interferes with Problem Solving?

• Fixation: using a prior strategy.
• Functional fixedness: inability to view objects through alternative functions. Base rate fallacy

6.3. Reasoning and Decision Making

• Inductive reasoning: move from specific observations to general conclusions
• Deductive reasoning: moves from general statements to specific conclusions.
• Decision making: evaluating alternatives and choosing among them

6.4. Types of Thinking

• Divergent thinking: generate many solutions
• Convergent: generate one best solution

7. How Can We Improve Critical and Creative Thinking?

• Critical thinking: examining ideas, recognizing bias, actively evaluating info
• Creative thinking: generate innovative ideas, flexible thinking, willingness to take risk, objective evaluation

8. Intelligence

• Intelligence is all-purpose abilities to solve problems and learn.
• Types of intelligence (e.g., analytical, creative, practical).
• Theories of multiple intelligences (e.g., Gardner's eight intelligences)
• Measuring intelligence (e.g. IQ tests) and standardized testing (standardization, validity, reliability)

9. Language

• Language is a communication system using symbols, sounds, meanings, and rules of combination.
• Language components include phonology, morphology, syntax, and semantics.

10. How do Humans Develop?

• Prenatal development: stages are germinal, embryonic, and fetal. Impact of teratogens.
• Infancy & early childhood: development of motor and perceptual skills. Object permanence develops.
• Piaget's stages of cognitive development: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, formal operational.
• Vygotsky's sociocultural theory: learning from interactions with those skilled in a task/culture. Zone of proximal development.
• Temperament, attachment, play.
• Socioemotional development: Erikson's stages (trust vs. mistrust, autonomy vs shame & doubt, initiative vs guilt, etc.)
• Adolescence: physical changes, cognitive changes, social emotional development. (Marcia's Identity statuses)
• Emerging Adulthood: transition period between adolescence & adulthood.
• Adult development: physical and cognitive changes throughout adulthood.