Realism in International Relations Study Guide PDF

Realism ​ A crucial construct in international relations Administrative Detail ​ Discussion and lecture topics: ○​ The Melian Dialogue ○​ Central ideas of Realism including: ○​ Anarchy and uncertainty ○​ Power dynamics ○​ Security dil...

Realism ​ A crucial construct in international relations Administrative Detail ​ Discussion and lecture topics: ○​ The Melian Dialogue ○​ Central ideas of Realism including: ○​ Anarchy and uncertainty ○​ Power dynamics ○​ Security dilemma ○​ Strategies: balancing and bandwagoning ○​ The concept of balance of power ​ Class discussion to engage with these topics. The Melian Dialogue ​ Important text illustrating Realism ​ Questions to consider: ○​ How does realism advise policymakers? ○​ Examples from the Melian Dialogue? Assumptions of Realism ​ The international system is inherently anarchic ​ States must be vigilant against potential attacks by others ​ Primary focus on survival of the state. Anarchy, Uncertainty, and Offensive Capability ​ Key themes underlying realism: ○​ Concepts of trust issues: "split or steal" metaphor for relations among states. Power Dynamics ​ In international disputes, coercion and military strength are paramount ​ Quote: "In the game of international politics, clubs are trumps." ​ States are recognized as the only significant actors in the international sphere. Dimensions of Power ​ Emphasis on military power, yet influenced by: ○​ Population size and skill ○​ Economic strength ○​ Geopolitical factors (geography) ○​ Access to natural resources ○​ National morale ○​ Effective governmental decision making. The Security Dilemma ​ Power accumulation by one state leads to anxiety among others, even if intentions appear benign ​ States may enter arms races to secure their power ​ Fear of being attacked first can compel states to initiate conflict, making war almost inevitable. Balancing, Bandwagoning, and Buckpassing ​ Responses of states to felt threats: ○​ Internal balancing: strengthening one’s own power ○​ External balancing: forming alliances ○​ Bandwagoning: aligning with the threatening state ○​ Buckpassing: hoping others will counteract the threat. Temporary Alliances and Self-Interest ​ Alliances based on mutual interests are projective and may shift in response to power distributions ​ Historical example: Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact (1939) between Germany and USSR. Balance of Power ​ Maintains peace through equal power distribution among states ​ Countries engage in alliances that prevent outright victories in wars ​ The costs of conflict outweigh potential gains. Implications of Anarchy ​ States depend on individual self-help measures for survival  ​ Competitive dynamics drive states to bolster military and economic capabilities (internal and external balancing) ​ A stable international order can emerge only from balanced power structures. Critical Appraisal of Realism ​ Reflect on the applicability of realism to contemporary global relations ​ Identify potential criticisms or gaps in the theory. Hegemonic Stability Theory ​ Hegemons: states with unparalleled power that cannot be constricted by alliances ​ Peace tends to prevail when a hegemon efficiently resolves disputes ​ Periods without hegemonic power lead to increased conflict. Historical Context of Hegemony ​ Notable periods of hegemonic transition: ○​ 30 Years War (1618-1648) ○​ War of Spanish Succession (1701-1714) ○​ Napoleonic Wars (1803-1815) ○​ World Wars (1914-1945). Conclusive Summary on Realism ​ Key tenets: anarchy necessitates self-help, military power outweighs other forms, the security dilemma is a significant issue, states engage in balancing and bandwagoning strategies, success hinges on power equilibrium, and geopolitical transitions significantly influence global stability. Realism in International Relations Overview Realism is a crucial construct in international relations, emphasizing the competitive and conflictual nature of international politics among states. It illustrates how states prioritize survival in an anarchic international system, where no overarching authority exists to enforce order Discussion and Lecture Topics:  ​ The Melian Dialogue: A pivotal text that encapsulates key themes of realism and the harsh realities of international relations. ​ Central Ideas of Realism: Including important concepts such as: ○​ Anarchy and uncertainty: The absence of a global government creates a self-help system. ○​ Power dynamics: How power is distributed among states influences their interactions. ○​ Security dilemma: Actions by a state intended to heighten its security may inadvertently threaten other states, leading to an arms race. ○​ Strategies: ○​ Balancing: States enhance their own power or form alliances to counteract threats. ○​ Bandwagoning: Aligning with a stronger state to avoid conflict. ​ The Concept of Balance of Power: Refers to the idea that national security is enhanced when military capabilities are distributed so that no one nation is strong enough to dominate the others. Key Themes in Realism The Melian Dialogue ​ Significance: This ancient text by Thucydides illustrates the principles of realism, particularly the idea that moral arguments hold little weight in the face of power dynamics. ​ Questions to Consider: ○​ How does realism advise policymakers in terms of military and diplomatic strategies? ○​ What examples from the Melian Dialogue demonstrate these realist principles? Assumptions of Realism Realism operates under several critical assumptions: ​ The international system is inherently anarchic, meaning states operate within a self-help environment. ​ States must remain vigilant against potential attacks by others. ​ The primary focus for states is the survival and strengthening of their own political and territorial integrity. Anarchy, Uncertainty, and Offensive Capability ​ Conceptual Framework: The environment of uncertainty drives states to distrust one another, often summarized by the "split or steal" metaphor that illustrates cooperative versus competitive interactions among states. Power Dynamics  ​ In international disputes, power and military strength emerge as central factors in determining outcomes. ​ As stated, "In the game of international politics, clubs are trumps," signifying the primacy of force in international affairs. ​ Significance of States as Major Actors: Realism posits that states are the only significant actors in international relations, as other entities lack the authority to initiate force or conduct foreign policy. Dimensions of Power While military strength is emphasized, other factors influence a state's power: ​ Population size and skill level ​ Economic resources and strength ​ Geopolitical positioning: Geography plays a crucial role in determining how states interact and their strategic advantages. ​ Access to natural resources: Essential for sustaining power and military capabilities. ​ National morale: The will of the population and leaders affects a state's capacity to act. The Security Dilemma ​ Understanding: The security dilemma explains how the defensive measures of one state can provoke insecurity in others, leading to arms races and potential conflict. ​ Behavioral Implications: Fear of being attacked first fosters a climate where states are compelled to engage in pre-emptive actions, making violent conflicts more probable. Responses of States to Threats ​ Balancing: States can counter threats by enhancing their own power (internal balancing) or forming alliances (external balancing). ​ Bandwagoning: Aligning with a stronger state as a defensive strategy. ​ Buckpassing: The hope that other states will counteract a threat, thereby avoiding direct confrontation. Temporary Alliances and Self-Interest ​ Alliances based on mutual interests are often transient and responsive to shifts in power distributions among states. ​ Example: The Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact (1939) between Germany and the USSR illustrates how temporary alliances can be formed based on immediate interests, despite ideological differences. Balance of Power ​ A critical mechanism for maintaining peace lies in the balance of power which deters one state from dominating others.  ​ Countries typically engage in alliances that prevent any single nation from obtaining an overt victory in global conflicts, establishing that the costs of conflict frequently outweigh potential gains. Implications of Anarchy ​ In an anarchic system, states rely on self-help measures to ensure their survival; competitive dynamics drive nations to improve military and economic capabilities (internal and external balancing). ​ A stable international order emerges from balanced power structures where states engage cooperatively to avoid conflict and maintain security. Critical Appraisal of Realism ​ Examination of how applicable realism is to contemporary global relations necessitates identifying criticisms or structural limitations within the theory, including its deterministic nature and the potential neglect of non-state actors. Hegemonic Stability Theory ​ Concept: Hegemons are highly powerful states that can shape the international order and are less constrained by alliances. ​ Peace tends to prevail when a hegemon efficiently resolves disputes among weaker states; in contrast, periods lacking hegemonic power often result in escalated conflicts. Historical Context of Hegemony ​ Noteable transitions in hegemonic periods include: ○​ 30 Years War (1618-1648) ○​ War of Spanish Succession (1701-1714) ○​ Napoleonic Wars (1803-1815) ○​ World Wars (1914-1945) Conclusive Summary on Realism Key tenets of realism underscore the necessity of self-reliance in an anarchic arena, the predominance of military power over other forms of engagement, the critical issue of the security dilemma, and the dynamics of balancing and bandwagoning strategies as central to interstate relations. Success hinges on the equilibrium of power, and geopolitical transitions profoundly influence global stability. Liberalism Overview  ​ Liberalism is a political and economic philosophy that emphasizes individual rights, democracy, and free market. ​ Key Themes: ○​ Liberalism ○​ Reciprocity ○​ Interdependence ○​ Sub-state actors ○​ Institutions ○​ International law ○​ Democratic peace Security Dilemma ​ Addressing the security dilemma: ○​ Accepting it as an inevitable aspect of human nature ○​ Pursuing solutions to alleviate the dilemma Major Themes of Liberalism ​ Key Components: ○​ Reciprocity: Mutual actions based on reciprocal behavior between actors. ○​ Interdependence: Mutual economic, political, cultural, and environmental reliance among states and non-state actors. ○​ International institutions: Organizations that facilitate cooperation and interaction. ○​ Democratic peace theory: The observation that democracies are less likely to engage in war with one another. Definitions ​ Reciprocity: Actions performed mutually by various actors based on each other's behavior. ​ Interdependence: States and non-state actors in the international system rely on each other economically, politically, and culturally. Classroom Discussion: Prisoner's Dilemma ​ Questions for analysis: ○​ How was round 2 different from round 1? ○​ Did reciprocity emerge in your game? ○​ Were examples of interdependence observed? Reciprocity and Economic Interdependence ​ Economic connections can reduce conflict likelihood: ○​ Economic ties enhance growth, leading to increased power for states involved. ○​ Conflict becomes costlier, providing a disincentive for war. Sub-State Actors and Interdependence ​ The role of sub-state actors: ○​ Examples: Multinational corporations (MNCs), Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs). ○​ These actors pressure their governments to cooperate, reducing distrust and aiding in overcoming the security dilemma. ○​ States are not the only relevant entities in international relations. Realism vs. Liberalism ​ Realism focuses on state power and perceives states mainly as threats. Liberalism and Interests ​ States are composed of various interests (individuals, groups), fostering international ties. ​ Interests seek opportunities for cooperation. Role of Institutions in Interdependence ​ Example: G20 Osaka Summit 2019  ​ Frequent interaction through diplomacy: ○​ Reduces fear and uncertainty among states. ○​ Fosters shared interests and creates functional agreements. Major Inter-Governmental Organizations (IGOs) ​ Significant IGOs include: ○​ United Nations ○​ European Union ○​ G-7 ○​ G-20 ○​ Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) ○​ Organization of American States (OAS) ○​ African Union (AU) ○​ Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) International Law ​ Emergence from international interactions, customs, and institutional rules. ​ States typically comply due to reciprocity rather than enforcement mechanisms. ​ Collective security agreements illustrate states' commitment to mutual defense. Democracy's Influence on Cooperation ​ Democracies tend to: ○​ Be more cooperative and less war-prone. ○​ Have more diverse interests and political actors, enhancing international ties. ○​ Allow citizen accountability to limit aggressive policies. ○​ Maintain transparency through free press, easing tensions. Interdependence and Democratic Interaction ​ Liberal expectations regarding state behavior based on: ○​ Different degrees of interdependence. ○​ Whether interacting states are democracies. Liberalism: Pathway to Peace ​ Core components of liberalism: ○​ Interdependence, international institutions, and democracy lead to prospects for peace. ○​ Distrust, secretive alliances, and aggression lead to conflict and poverty. School of Thought: Liberalism vs. Realism ​ Evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of both perspectives: ○​ Realism highlights cautionary tales of mutual distrust. ○​ Liberalism presents optimism through cooperation and institutions. Constructivism Plan for Today's Study Session ​ Reading Quiz ​ Basic Map Quiz: Scheduled for 2/7 ​ Exam 1: Scheduled for 2/12 ​ Topics to Cover: ○​ Theories of Power ○​ Outlining Constructivism ○​ Feminism in International Relations Understanding Power ​ Definition of Power: ○​ Ability to compel others to take actions they otherwise might not take. ○​ Causes others to prefer certain actions over alternatives. Theoretical Perspectives on Power Realism ​ Power is derived from coercion.  ​ Key Components: ○​ Military Power: Central to realist theory. ○​ Supported by factors such as: ○​ Economic strength ○​ Geopolitical position ○​ Population size Liberalism ​ Power is established through reciprocal relationships. ​ States can exert influence by threatening to withhold cooperation. ​ Importance of non-state actors: ○​ Multinational Corporations (MNCs) ○​ Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) ○​ Sub-state Actors ○​ These groups influence states through domestic politics while supporting global connections. Constructivism: The Power of Ideas ​ Human behavior influenced by: ○​ Ideas and understandings ○​ More so than mere material self-interest. ​ Key Concepts: ○​ Values: Normatively right or appropriate beliefs. ○​ Beliefs: Understanding of what is possible or impossible. ○​ Identities: Self-perception and perception of others. Identities and Behavior ​ Internal identity influences behavior. ○​ Example: The Ukraine crisis affecting Germany's identity in international relations. ​ External identity influences how others behave toward us. Global Nuclear Arsenal Overview (2023)  ​ Estimated total nuclear warhead inventories: over 12,500 ​ USA and Russia control nearly 90% of nuclear warheads. ​ Warhead distribution trends among various countries: ○​ Increasing Stockpiles: China, India, North Korea, Pakistan, Russia, UK. ○​ Stable Stockpiles: France, Israel. ○​ Decreasing Stockpiles: USA, UK. Key Principles of Constructivism ​ Power exists in shared understandings: ○​ Norms, beliefs, and identities frame international relations. ​ Conflict arises when understandings diverge. ​ Social constructions can change. Implications of Constructivism 1.​ Anarchy is shaped by states’ perceptions and interpretations. 2.​ Sub-state actors hold significant influence in global politics: ​ Individual leaders’ identities, public opinion, and cultural context matter. ​ Norm entrepreneurs can reshape global politics. 3.​ The world is subject to change with new values and beliefs: ​ Shifts in norms create different political dynamics over time. Discussion Questions ​ How does constructivism differ from realism and liberalism? ​ Can you provide an example where beliefs/values outweighed material interests in international decisions? Feminist International Relations (IR) ​ Normative Focus: International systems' bias against women must be addressed. ​ Empirical Focus: ○​ Gender identity’s influence on foreign policy decision-making. ○​ Examining masculine and feminine approaches:  ○​ Dominance, honor, aggression vs. human security. ​ Women’s networks can influence IR outcomes. Discussion Questions on Constructivism and Feminism ​ What insights can constructivism and feminism provide on Russia's invasion of Ukraine? Conclusion ​ Constructivists affirm that ideas shape behavior as much or more than material interests. ​ Emphasis on the roles of values, beliefs, identities in shaping international politics. ​ Recognizes the significance of individuals and sub-state actors. ​ Feminist IR as a branch within constructivist thought highlights the predictable influence of gender identities on behavior. Topics to Cover: 1.​ Theories of Power 2.​ Outlining Constructivism 3.​ Feminism in International Relations 4.​ Understanding Power Definition of Power: ​ The ability to compel others to take actions they otherwise might not take. ​ Causes others to prefer certain actions over alternatives while affecting their choices. Theoretical Perspectives on Power 1.​ Realism ​ Power is fundamentally derived from coercion and military strength. ​ Key Components: ○​ Military Power: Central to realist theory, emphasizing defense and offensive capabilities.  ○​ Supported by factors such as economic strength, geopolitical position, and population size. ○​ Relies on state sovereignty and the anarchic nature of international relations, where each state acts in its own self-interest. 2.​ Liberalism ​ Power is established through reciprocal relationships and institutions, focusing on cooperation among states. ​ States can exert influence by threatening to withhold cooperation and engaging in diplomacy. ​ Importance of Non-State Actors: ○​ Multinational Corporations (MNCs): Influence policies through economic power. ○​ Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs): Drive advocacy and humanitarian efforts, impacting global issues like climate change and human rights. ○​ Sub-state Actors: Regional or local entities that influence state politics and contribute to international relations by voicing local concerns. 3.​ Constructivism: The Power of Ideas ​ Human behavior is primarily influenced by ideas and understandings rather than just material self-interest. ​ Key Concepts: ○​ Values: Normatively considered right or appropriate beliefs that drive behavior and decision-making. ○​ Beliefs: Understanding of what is perceived as possible or impossible in international affairs. ○​ Identities: Self-perception and perception of others, shaping actions and interactions on the global stage. Identities and Behavior ​ Internal Identity: Influences behavior and can shift due to crises, such as the Ukraine crisis affecting Germany's identity in international relations by redefining its security needs and alliances. ​ External Identity: Influences how other states perceive and behave toward a given state, affecting diplomatic relations and cooperation. Global Nuclear Arsenal Overview (2023) ​ Estimated total nuclear warhead inventories: Over 12,500.  ​ Key players: The USA and Russia control nearly 90% of global nuclear warhead stockpiles. ​ Warhead Distribution Trends Among Various Countries: ○​ Increasing Stockpiles: Notable increases in China, India, North Korea, Pakistan, and Russia, indicating arms races and regional tensions. ○​ Stable Stockpiles: France and Israel maintain stable arsenals with no significant changes. ○​ Decreasing Stockpiles: The USA and UK are reducing their nuclear arsenals, reflecting shifts in policy towards disarmament. Key Principles of Constructivism ​ Power exists in shared understandings: Norms, beliefs, and identities frame international relations, with power dynamics continuing to evolve over time. ​ Conflict arises when understandings diverge: Misalignments in values lead to tension and disputes. ​ Social constructions can change: Evolving norms can lead to transformed relationships and political landscapes. Implications of Constructivism ​ Anarchy is shaped by states’ perceptions and interpretations: The international system is anarchic, but state behavior is mediated by their identities and the meanings they attach to their actions. ​ Significance of Sub-state Actors: Individual leaders’ identities, public opinion, and cultural contexts play crucial roles in shaping international decisions. ​ Norm entrepreneurs can reshape global politics by promoting new norms and advocating for shifts in state behaviors. ​ The world is subject to change as new values and beliefs emerge, leading to different political dynamics over time. Discussion Questions ​ How does constructivism differ from realism and liberalism in terms of power dynamics? ​ Can you provide an example where beliefs or values outweighed material interests in international decisions? Feminist International Relations (IR)  ​ Normative Focus: Highlights the need to address the international systems' bias against women. ​ Empirical Focus: Examines the influence of gender identities on foreign policy decision-making. ​ Masculine vs. Feminine Approaches: Contrasts values such as dominance, honor, and aggression against a focus on human security and inclusive policies. ​ Women’s Networks: Play a significant role in influencing international relations outcomes by promoting peace and advocating for policy changes. Discussion Questions on Constructivism and Feminism ​ What insights can constructivism and feminism provide on understanding Russia's invasion of Ukraine and the international community's response? Conclusion ​ Constructivists affirm that ideas shape behavior as much as or more than material interests, emphasizing the roles of values, beliefs, and identities in shaping international politics. ​ Recognizes the significance of individuals and sub-state actors in influencing policies and decisions. ​ Feminist IR, as a branch within constructivist thought, highlights the predictable influence of gender identities on behavior and policy outcomes in international relations. Page 1: Introduction to International Relations ​ Overview of geographic locations related to international politics. ​ Cities and countries such as Singapore, Ireland, Thailand, and several others are mentioned in a global context. ​ Fundamental concepts discussed: ○​ Sovereignty ○​ Anarchy ​ Mention of The Prisoner’s Dilemma as a key concept. Page 3: Sovereignty in International Relations ​ Definition of Sovereignty:  ○​ Monopoly on legitimate use of force within a defined territory. ​ Implications of Sovereignty: ○​ Supreme rule-making authority. ○​ Right to non-interference from external actors. ○​ Control over border crossings. ○​ Authority to make agreements with other sovereign actors. ​ Holders of Sovereignty: ○​ Exclusively held by states. ​ Limitations on Other Actors: ○​ Corporations, non-profits, and international organizations cannot claim sovereignty. Page 4: Characteristics of a State ​ Definition of State: ○​ A political-legal unit that: ○​ Has an identifiable population. ○​ Is located within defined borders recognized by other states. ○​ Has a government that maintains internal and external sovereignty. ​ Historical Context: ○​ States have been the central actors in international relations since the Peace of Westphalia in 1648. ○​ Establishment of the doctrine of sovereignty in international law. Page 5: Understanding Anarchy in International Relations ​ Definition of Anarchy: ○​ Absence of a universal political authority, meaning no world government. ​ Clarification: ○​ Anarchy is not synonymous with chaos; it implies absence of hierarchy. ○​ States operate independently, requiring them to resolve disputes without a world police force. Page 6: Concept Check Questions  ​ What is sovereignty and who holds it? ​ What is anarchy and why does it characterize the international system? ​ Why is internal politics of a sovereign state not anarchic? Page 7: The Prisoner's Dilemma ​ Grid Representation: ○​ A scenario between two players (Player A and Player B) where they can either cooperate or defect: ○​ (Cooperate, Cooperate) yields (7, 7) ○​ (Cooperate, Defect) yields (0, 10) ○​ (Defect, Cooperate) yields (10, 0) ○​ (Defect, Defect) yields (3, 3) ○​ Scores for Player A are listed on the left, while scores for Player B are on the right. Page 8: Implications of the Prisoner’s Dilemma ​ Application to international politics: ○​ Scenario of two countries in crisis at their border considering whether to engage in conflict or de-escalate. ○​ Reflects strategic decision-making in the context of mutual cooperation or conflict. Page 9: Conclusion on Fundamental Concepts ​ Recap of Major Themes: ○​ Sovereignty: ○​ Supreme authority within a defined territory since the Peace of Westphalia in 1648, held by states due to violence control. ○​ Anarchy: ○​ Lack of a global authority leads states to find solutions to conflicts on their own. ○​ Prisoner’s Dilemma Insights:  ○​ Interpretation varies by context: Realist (single-play), Liberal (repeated-play), and Constructivist (engaging with different political entities). Introduction to International Relations Overview of Geographic Locations International relations are heavily influenced by geographic locales that play significant roles in global politics. Critical regions and countries, such as Singapore (a major financial hub), Ireland (known for its unique position within the EU), and Thailand (a key player in Southeast Asian politics), are frequently discussed in an international context to understand their diplomatic and economic relationships. Course Administration Important Dates ​ Basic Map Quiz: Due February 7. This quiz will test knowledge of geographic locations pertinent to international relations. ​ Exam 1: Scheduled for February 12, covering foundational topics introduced in the course. ​ Research Topic Memo: Due February 21; students should identify a key area of interest within international relations. Fundamental Concepts Discussed ​ Sovereignty: The primary principle governing state interactions, defined as the full right and power of a governing body to govern itself without any interference from outside sources. ​ Anarchy: A core concept in international relations signifying the absence of a global governing authority. ​ The Prisoner’s Dilemma: A crucial strategic scenario in game theory illustrating the challenges of cooperation in an environment where mutual trust is undermined by competing interests. Sovereignty in International Relations Definition of Sovereignty ​ Monopoly on Legitimate Use of Force: The state holds exclusive rights to use force legitimately within its borders. Implications of Sovereignty 1.​ Supreme Rule-Making Authority: Only states can enact laws governing their territory and people. 2.​ Right to Non-Interference: States have the right to deter external influences on their domestic affairs. 3.​ Control Over Border Crossings: States are tasked with regulating who enters and leaves their territory. 4.​ Authority to Form Agreements: States can enter treaties and agreements with one another or with international organizations, enhancing their strategic interests. Holders of Sovereignty ​ Exclusively held by states, which are recognized as the primary actors within the international system. Limitations on Other Actors ​ Non-State Actors: Corporations, non-profit organizations, and international organizations lack sovereignty; they do not have the power to govern independently. Characteristics of a State Definition of State A state is defined as a political-legal unit characterized by the following features:  ​ Identifiable Population: A defined group of people recognizing themselves as a collective. ​ Defined Borders: Territorial integrity recognized by other states. ​ Government: A structured governing body that maintains internal order and manages external relations, ensuring both internal and external sovereignty. Historical Context ​ Since the Peace of Westphalia in 1648, states have become the central figures in international relations, establishing a framework for sovereignty in international law. Understanding Anarchy in International Relations Definition of Anarchy ​ Anarchy refers to a system of international governance where no overarching authority exists to enforce rules. Clarification ​ It is crucial to note that anarchy does not equate to chaos; rather, it indicates a lack of hierarchical governance. In an anarchic system, states must navigate their own foreign affairs and resolve conflicts independently, as no global police force exists to intervene. Concept Check Questions ​ What is sovereignty, and who holds it in the context of international relations? ​ What does anarchy mean, and how does it characterize the international system? ​ Why is the internal politics of a sovereign state categorized as non-anarchic? The Prisoner's Dilemma Grid Representation The Prisoner’s Dilemma is represented as a strategic interaction between two players, where each player, Player A and Player B, must decide to either cooperate or defect: ​ (Cooperate, Cooperate) yields (7, 7) ​ (Cooperate, Defect) yields (0, 10) ​ (Defect, Cooperate) yields (10, 0) ​ (Defect, Defect) yields (3, 3) In this scenario, the scores for Player A are indicated on the left side, while the scores for Player B are displayed on the right. Implications of the Prisoner’s Dilemma Application to International Politics ​ This framework can be applied to situations where nations must decide whether to enter conflict or pursue collaboration, especially in crises at their borders. ​ It reflects key strategic decision-making, demonstrating the complexities of international cooperation and conflict amid competing national interests. Conclusion on Fundamental Concepts Recap of Major Themes ​ Sovereignty: Remains a pivotal principle, emphasizing state authority within a defined territory since the Peace of Westphalia. ​ Anarchy: Shapes international relations by compelling states to resolve conflicts autonomously. ​ Prisoner’s Dilemma Insights: Different interpretations arise based on the context: Realist (considering a single-play scenario), Liberal (focusing on repeated interactions), and Constructivist (how states engage with diverse political entities). Conclusion: Liberalism  ​ Emphasizes: ○​ Reciprocity ○​ Interdependence ○​ International institutions ○​ Democratic peace Liberalism Overview Liberalism is a highly influential political and economic philosophy that emphasizes the importance of individual rights, democracy, and the free market. It advocates for the protection of civil liberties and personal freedoms, viewing the role of government as a protector of these rights while promoting equality and justice among individuals. Class Schedule and Important Dates ​ Today's Plan: ○​ No reading quiz today. ○​ Basic Map Quiz due 2/7. ○​ Exam 1 scheduled for 2/12. ○​ Research topic memo due 2/21. Key Themes ​ Liberalism: A belief system that supports democracy, civil rights, and economic freedom. ​ Reciprocity: The practice of mutual exchange; crucial in fostering trust and cooperation among states. ​ Interdependence: A state of mutual reliance among states and non-state actors in multiple aspects, such as economy and culture. ​ Sub-State Actors: Various influential entities, such as multinational corporations (MNCs) and non-governmental organizations (NGOs), that contribute to international relations. ​ Institutions: Structures that play a significant role in governing international cooperation. ​ International Law: A system of rules and treaties that governs interactions between states, rooted in customs and agreements. ​ Democratic Peace: A theory stating that democracies are less likely to go to war with each other due to shared values and mutual respect.  ​ Security Dilemma: A complex situation where efforts by one state to enhance its security causes insecurity in others, leading to potential conflict. Addressing the Security Dilemma ​ Accepting the security dilemma as an inevitable aspect of human nature is the first step. ​ Pursuing solutions, such as diplomatic engagement and building trust through transparency, can alleviate tensions and foster peace. Major Themes of Liberalism Key Components: ​ Reciprocity: Involves actions taken by various actors based on mutual behavior, which encourages cooperation and confidence. ​ Interdependence: The growing economic, political, cultural, and environmental reliance among states and non-state actors shapes global interactions significantly. ​ International Institutions: Organizations like the United Nations and the European Union facilitate dialogue and cooperation, leading to more stable international relations. ​ Democratic Peace Theory: This theory holds that countries with democratic systems tend to avoid armed conflict with each other, given their common principles such as respect for human rights and adherence to the rule of law. Definitions ​ Reciprocity: Actions performed mutually based on the behavior of other actors, fostering cooperation. ​ Interdependence: The interconnectedness among states and non-state actors, emphasizing the necessity of one another. Classroom Discussion: Prisoner's Dilemma Questions for Analysis: ​ How was round 2 of the game different from round 1? ​ Did reciprocity manifest in your game, and if so, how? ​ What instances of interdependence were observed? Reciprocity and Economic Interdependence Key Insights: ​ Economic connections among states can significantly reduce the likelihood of conflicts by creating interdependencies that make war costlier for all parties involved. ​ Enhanced economic ties lead to mutual growth and a preference for diplomatic resolutions over military ones. Sub-State Actors and Interdependence The Role of Sub-State Actors: ​ Examples include multinational corporations (MNCs) and non-governmental organizations (NGOs), which actively engage in international relations. ​ These actors often exert pressure on their respective governments to pursue cooperative endeavors, thereby lessening distrust and helping to manage the security dilemma. ​ Their involvement underscores that states are not the only significant players in global affairs. Realism vs. Liberalism ​ Realism: Focuses primarily on state power and security, interpreting states as potential threats to one another. ​ Liberalism: Emphasizes cooperation, common interests, and the potential for peace through diplomacy and institutions. Liberalism and Interests ​ Recognizes that states are made up of diverse interests (individuals, groups, organizations), which can lead to productive international ties. ​ A focus on finding common interests can foster collaboration rather than conflict. Role of Institutions in Interdependence Example: G20 Osaka Summit 2019 ​ Frequent diplomatic interactions contribute to reducing fear and uncertainty among states. ​ Institutions foster shared interests and create frameworks for functional agreements, promoting stability and cooperation. Major Inter-Governmental Organizations (IGOs) Key IGOs Include: ​ United Nations (UN): A global organization aimed at promoting peace and security. ​ European Union (EU): A political and economic union of European countries promoting integration and cooperation. ​ G-7 and G-20: Groups of major advanced and emerging economies that discuss and coordinate economic policies. ​ Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD): Promotes policies that improve economic and social well-being around the world. ​ Organization of American States (OAS): Works to promote democracy, security, and development in the Americas. ​ African Union (AU): Cares for the political and economic integration of African countries. ​ Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN): Promotes regional stability and economic growth in Southeast Asia. International Law ​ Emerges from a combination of international interactions, customs, and established institutional rules. ​ Typically, states comply with international law out of a sense of reciprocity and the desire to maintain good relations, rather than through enforcement mechanisms. ​ Collective security agreements exemplify states' commitments to mutual defense and cooperation. Democracy's Influence on Cooperation ​ Democracies are generally more cooperative and less inclined to engage in warfare. ​ They foster a diverse range of interests and political actors, which can enhance international ties and collaborative efforts. ​ Citizen accountability and a transparent media environment can mitigate aggressive government policies and ease international tensions. Interdependence and Democratic Interaction ​ Liberalism posits expectations about state behavior based on: ○​ The degree of interdependence. ○​ The nature of states' political systems (democratic or otherwise). Liberalism: Pathway to Peace Core Components: ​ Interdependence, international institutions, and democracy are fundamental to achieving peace among states. ​ In contrast, distrust, secretive alliances, and aggressive actions lead to conflict and poverty, undermining global stability. School of Thought: Liberalism vs. Realism ​ Both perspectives present strengths and weaknesses: ○​ Realism provides cautionary tales about the dangers of mutual distrust and the perpetual threat of conflict. ○​ Liberalism offers an optimistic view of international relations, highlighting the potential for cooperation and peace through institutions. Conclusion: Liberalism Liberalism fundamentally emphasizes the core concepts of: ​ Reciprocity ​ Interdependence ​ International Institutions ​ Democratic Peace AI Summarizer Note | Knowt HomeExploreExams Search for anything 1 LV 1 115 0 Preview only - press create to edit Create Anarchy - IR Page 1: Introduction to International Relations ​ Overview of geographic locations related to international politics. ​ Cities and countries such as Singapore, Ireland, Thailand, and several others are mentioned in a global context. Page 2: Course Administration ​ Important dates: ○​ Basic Map quiz is due February 7. ○​ Exam 1 is on February 12. ○​ Research topic memo is due February 21. ​ Fundamental concepts discussed: ○​ Sovereignty ○​ Anarchy ​ Mention of The Prisoner’s Dilemma as a key concept. Page 3: Sovereignty in International Relations ​ Definition of Sovereignty: ○​ Monopoly on legitimate use of force within a defined territory. ​ Implications of Sovereignty: ○​ Supreme rule-making authority. ○​ Right to non-interference from external actors. ○​ Control over border crossings. ○​ Authority to make agreements with other sovereign actors. ​ Holders of Sovereignty:  ○​ Exclusively held by states. ​ Limitations on Other Actors: ○​ Corporations, non-profits, and international organizations cannot claim sovereignty. Page 4: Characteristics of a State ​ Definition of State: ○​ A political-legal unit that: ○​ Has an identifiable population. ○​ Is located within defined borders recognized by other states. ○​ Has a government that maintains internal and external sovereignty. ​ Historical Context: ○​ States have been the central actors in international relations since the Peace of Westphalia in 1648. ○​ Establishment of the doctrine of sovereignty in international law. Page 5: Understanding Anarchy in International Relations ​ Definition of Anarchy: ○​ Absence of a universal political authority, meaning no world government. ​ Clarification: ○​ Anarchy is not synonymous with chaos; it implies absence of hierarchy. ○​ States operate independently, requiring them to resolve disputes without a world police force. Page 6: Concept Check Questions ​ What is sovereignty and who holds it? ​ What is anarchy and why does it characterize the international system? ​ Why is internal politics of a sovereign state not anarchic? Page 7: The Prisoner's Dilemma ​ Grid Representation:  ○​ A scenario between two players (Player A and Player B) where they can either cooperate or defect: ○​ (Cooperate, Cooperate) yields (7, 7) ○​ (Cooperate, Defect) yields (0, 10) ○​ (Defect, Cooperate) yields (10, 0) ○​ (Defect, Defect) yields (3, 3) ○​ Scores for Player A are listed on the left, while scores for Player B are on the right. Page 8: Implications of the Prisoner’s Dilemma ​ Application to international politics: ○​ Scenario of two countries in crisis at their border considering whether to engage in conflict or de-escalate. ○​ Reflects strategic decision-making in the context of mutual cooperation or conflict. Page 9: Conclusion on Fundamental Concepts ​ Recap of Major Themes: ○​ Sovereignty: ○​ Supreme authority within a defined territory since the Peace of Westphalia in 1648, held by states due to violence control. ○​ Anarchy: ○​ Lack of a global authority leads states to find solutions to conflicts on their own. ○​ Prisoner’s Dilemma Insights: ○​ Interpretation varies by context: Realist (single-play), Liberal (repeated-play), and Constructivist (engaging with different political entities). Introduction to International Relations Overview of Geographic Locations International relations are heavily influenced by geographic locales that play significant roles in global politics. Critical regions and countries, such as Singapore (a major financial hub), Ireland (known for its unique position within the EU), and Thailand (a key player in Southeast Asian politics), are frequently discussed in an international context to understand their diplomatic and economic relationships. Course Administration Important Dates ​ Basic Map Quiz: Due February 7. This quiz will test knowledge of geographic locations pertinent to international relations. ​ Exam 1: Scheduled for February 12, covering foundational topics introduced in the course. ​ Research Topic Memo: Due February 21; students should identify a key area of interest within international relations. Fundamental Concepts Discussed ​ Sovereignty: The primary principle governing state interactions, defined as the full right and power of a governing body to govern itself without any interference from outside sources. ​ Anarchy: A core concept in international relations signifying the absence of a global governing authority. ​ The Prisoner’s Dilemma: A crucial strategic scenario in game theory illustrating the challenges of cooperation in an environment where mutual trust is undermined by competing interests. Sovereignty in International Relations Definition of Sovereignty ​ Monopoly on Legitimate Use of Force: The state holds exclusive rights to use force legitimately within its borders. Implications of Sovereignty 1.​ Supreme Rule-Making Authority: Only states can enact laws governing their territory and people. 2.​ Right to Non-Interference: States have the right to deter external influences on their domestic affairs. 3.​ Control Over Border Crossings: States are tasked with regulating who enters and leaves their territory. 4.​ Authority to Form Agreements: States can enter treaties and agreements with one another or with international organizations, enhancing their strategic interests. Holders of Sovereignty ​ Exclusively held by states, which are recognized as the primary actors within the international system. Limitations on Other Actors ​ Non-State Actors: Corporations, non-profit organizations, and international organizations lack sovereignty; they do not have the power to govern independently. Characteristics of a State Definition of State A state is defined as a political-legal unit characterized by the following features: ​ Identifiable Population: A defined group of people recognizing themselves as a collective. ​ Defined Borders: Territorial integrity recognized by other states. ​ Government: A structured governing body that maintains internal order and manages external relations, ensuring both internal and external sovereignty. Historical Context  ​ Since the Peace of Westphalia in 1648, states have become the central figures in international relations, establishing a framework for sovereignty in international law. Understanding Anarchy in International Relations Definition of Anarchy ​ Anarchy refers to a system of international governance where no overarching authority exists to enforce rules. Clarification ​ It is crucial to note that anarchy does not equate to chaos; rather, it indicates a lack of hierarchical governance. In an anarchic system, states must navigate their own foreign affairs and resolve conflicts independently, as no global police force exists to intervene. Concept Check Questions ​ What is sovereignty, and who holds it in the context of international relations? ​ What does anarchy mean, and how does it characterize the international system? ​ Why is the internal politics of a sovereign state categorized as non-anarchic? The Prisoner's Dilemma Grid Representation The Prisoner’s Dilemma is represented as a strategic interaction between two players, where each player, Player A and Player B, must decide to either cooperate or defect: ​ (Cooperate, Cooperate) yields (7, 7) ​ (Cooperate, Defect) yields (0, 10) ​ (Defect, Cooperate) yields (10, 0)  ​ (Defect, Defect) yields (3, 3) In this scenario, the scores for Player A are indicated on the left side, while the scores for Player B are displayed on the right. Implications of the Prisoner’s Dilemma Application to International Politics ​ This framework can be applied to situations where nations must decide whether to enter conflict or pursue collaboration, especially in crises at their borders. ​ It reflects key strategic decision-making, demonstrating the complexities of international cooperation and conflict amid competing national interests. Conclusion on Fundamental Concepts Recap of Major Themes ​ Sovereignty: Remains a pivotal principle, emphasizing state authority within a defined territory since the Peace of Westphalia. ​ Anarchy: Shapes international relations by compelling states to resolve conflicts autonomously. ​ Prisoner’s Dilemma Insights: Different interpretations arise based on the context: Realist (considering a single-play scenario), Liberal (focusing on repeated interactions), and Constructivist (how states engage with diverse political entities). Page 1: Levels of Analysis Page 2: Exam Information ​ Exam Date: Wednesday ​ Format: 15 multiple-choice questions, 4 points each; 2 essays (choose from 3), 20 points each. ​ Essays: Need to demonstrate depth of knowledge with explanations and examples. ​ Agenda for Today: Discussing the levels of analysis:  ○​ Individual ○​ State ○​ Foreign Policy ○​ System Page 3: Purpose of the Levels of Analysis ​ Need for Analysis: Academics and practitioners seek tools to identify causal chains in international politics. ​ Theoretical Use: Theories help form causal hypotheses. ○​ Key Questions: ○​ What are sources of power? ○​ What drives human behavior? ○​ Different forces can influence decision-making. Page 4: Purposes of the Level of Analysis ​ Simplifying Complexity: Breaks down events into manageable levels for systematic analysis. ​ Comparing Perspectives: Highlights contrasts between leader-driven, domestic, and global influences. ​ Improving Analysis: Helps design responses that address various influences. Page 5: Understanding Issues ​ Better comprehension of an issue when different levels of analysis are considered. Page 6: Word Game Introduction ​ Objective: Create as many words as possible in three minutes. ​ Rules: ○​ Words must be at least three letters, in English, and not proper nouns. ○​ Emphasizes clear communication, cooperation, and commitment for better results. Page 7: Levels of Analysis Overview ​ Individual: Focuses on personal factors (personality, perceptions, choices). ​ State/Domestic: Examines governmental and national influences (regime type, public opinion). ​ Foreign Policy: Analyzes the impact of foreign policy decisions. ​ System: Considers international norms and economic conditions. ​ Figure 3.1: Illustrates these levels and their interactions. Page 8: Individual Level of Analysis ​ Focus: Examines influential leaders and their beliefs. ​ Notable Figures: ○​ Foreign policy elites ○​ Norm entrepreneurs ○​ Individuals with global impact (MNC leaders, terrorists, etc.) Page 9: Theoretical Perspectives on the Individual ​ Realism: Views humans as aggressive and fearful. ​ Liberalism: Highlights diplomacy and intelligence. ​ Constructivism: Focuses on identities and norms, emphasizing individual contributions. ​ Marxism: Limited emphasis very minimal, highlighting revolutionary leaders. Page 10: The State Level of Analysis ​ Focus: Domestic features and state policies affecting international behavior. ​ Examples of Influences: ○​ Regime type and constitution ○​ Domestic politics ○​ Economic systems ○​ National culture and public opinion Page 11: The State Level in Theory  ​ Realism: Domestic interest can lead to international conflict. ​ Liberalism: Importance of domestic institutions in foreign policy. ​ Constructivism: Impact of public opinion and culture. ​ Marxism: Economic systems play a crucial role; focuses on capitalism vs. communism. Page 12: The System Level of Analysis ​ Focus: Interactions and influences among states. ​ Examples of Systemic Influences: ○​ Power distribution in the international arena ○​ Role of international laws and organizations ○​ Transnational norms ○​ Global economic and technological forces. Page 13: The System in Theoretical Perspectives ​ Realism: Anarchy shaped by the distribution of power. ​ Liberalism: Interdependence reflects the nature of global relationships. ​ Marxism: Focus on capitalism's impact and inherent inequalities. ​ Constructivism: Looks at shared norms and beliefs globally. Page 14: Practice Questions Set of practice questions for understanding levels of analysis. Page 15: Practice Question 1 Analysis ​ Question: Why did Russia invade Georgia in 2008? ○​ Alice's View: Driven by Putin's vendetta against the West. ○​ Bob's View: NATO expansion threatened Russia's sphere of influence. ○​ Carol's View: Nationalist pressures within Russia lead to aggressive actions. Page 16: Practice Question 2 Analysis  ​ Question: What caused the Iran-Saudi Arabia rivalry? ○​ David's View: Saudi politics hinges on Sunni identity for legitimacy. ○​ Emma's View: Power vacuums from collapsed regional powers spur competition. ○​ Frank's View: Mohammed bin Salman’s foreign policy escalates tensions. Page 17: Practice Question 3 Analysis ​ Question: What caused Argentina to default on its debt in 2001? ○​ Diego's View: Global market conditions forced the decision. ○​ Elena's View: Legislative gridlock impeded necessary reforms. ○​ Fatima's View: Inexperienced leadership led to poor crisis management. Page 18: Conclusion on Levels of Analysis ​ Purpose: Levels of analysis help identify causal hypotheses in international relations. ○​ Categories: ○​ Systemic ○​ State ○​ Individual ○​ Foreign Policy Page 19: When Individuals Matter More ​ Key Situations: ○​ During instability in domestic institutions ○​ In foreign policy crises ○​ When institutions are new or transitioning ○​ When issues are infrequent or exceptional. Page 20: Symbolism of Analysis Levels ​ Question: Discuss how this image represents the levels of analysis or theoretical perspectives. ​ Levels of Analysis Exam Information ​ Exam Date: Wednesday ​ Format: 15 multiple-choice questions, each worth 4 points; 2 essays (select from 3 prompts), each worth 20 points. ​ Essays: Candidates must demonstrate a depth of knowledge within their essays, including the use of relevant explanations and concrete examples to support their arguments. Agenda for Today ​ Discussing the various levels of analysis which include: ○​ Individual Level: Focused on personal characteristics and individual behavior. ○​ State Level: Involves the analysis of state behavior and domestic influences. ○​ Foreign Policy Level: Considers how foreign policy decisions are formulated. ○​ System Level: Looks at the broader international system and global influences. Purpose of the Levels of Analysis ​ Need for Analysis: Both academics and practitioners utilize these levels as tools for identifying and analyzing causal relationships in international politics. ​ Theoretical Use: Different theories in international relations help in creating causal hypotheses that explain state behavior and international events. ​ Key Questions: ○​ What sources of power exist in different contexts? ○​ What intrinsic factors drive human behavior in international relations? ○​ How do various forces interplay to influence decision-making processes at different levels? Purposes of the Level of Analysis ​ Simplifying Complexity: The framework breaks down intricate international events into manageable components, facilitating systematic analysis.  ​ Comparing Perspectives: It highlights the contrasts between different influences, including leader-driven factors, domestic contexts, and global pressures, thereby providing a more comprehensive understanding. ​ Improving Analysis: This approach helps in designing effective responses that can address the multifaceted influences on international issues. Understanding Issues ​ A better comprehension of complex international issues can be achieved when multiple levels of analysis are applied. This can lead to more informed decision-making and policy formulation. Word Game Introduction ​ Objective: Participants are tasked with creating as many words as possible within a time limit of three minutes. ​ Rules: ○​ Words must have a minimum length of three letters, be in English, and should not consist of proper nouns. ○​ This activity emphasizes the importance of clear communication, fostering cooperative skills, and reinforcing commitment among participants for achieving better outcomes. Levels of Analysis Overview ​ Individual: Analyzes personal factors, particularly the beliefs, decisions, and actions of influential leaders. ​ State/Domestic: Evaluates governmental structures and national influences such as: ○​ The type of regime and its implications on policy ○​ The impact of public opinion on decision-making ○​ Economic systems and their ramifications on foreign policies ○​ National culture and prevailing social attitudes ​ Foreign Policy: Investigates the implications and outcomes of foreign policy choices made by states. ​ System: Considers overarching international norms, economic conditions, and the relative power of states within the global system. Figure 3.1: ​ Illustrates the interactions among these levels of analysis and their impacts on international relations outcomes. Individual Level of Analysis ​ Focus: This level examines how influential leaders and their unique beliefs shape foreign policy decisions. ​ Notable Figures: ○​ Key foreign policy elites ○​ Norm entrepreneurs who advocate new ideas and norms ○​ Individuals with significant global impact, such as leaders of multinational corporations or actors in terrorism Theoretical Perspectives on the Individual ​ Realism: Emphasizes the aggressive and fearful nature of humans, often leading to conflict. ​ Liberalism: Stresses the significance of diplomacy, negotiation, and intelligence gathering as tools in international relations. ​ Constructivism: Asserts that identities and social norms are crucial, emphasizing the roles individuals play in shaping these constructs. ​ Marxism: Provides a minimal emphasis on individual roles, focusing instead on revolutionary leaders and the dynamics of class struggle. The State Level of Analysis ​ Focus: This level delves into how domestic features and state policies influence international behavior. ​ Examples of Influences: ○​ The nature of the regime and its constitutional framework ○​ The interplay of domestic political affairs ○​ The economic system in place (e.g., capitalism vs. socialism) ○​ National culture and the prevailing public opinion within the state The State Level in Theory  ​ Realism: Suggests that domestic interests and conflicts frequently trigger international strife. ​ Liberalism: Underlines the role of domestic institutions as fundamental to shaping coherent foreign policy. ​ Constructivism: Highlights the significance of public opinion and cultural narratives in influencing state actions. ​ Marxism: Argues that the economic structures play a crucial role in international relations, particularly regarding capitalist versus communist ideologies. The System Level of Analysis ​ Focus: This level considers the interactions and relationships among states in the international sphere. ​ Examples of Systemic Influences: ○​ The distribution of power among states and its implications for global stability ○​ The role of international laws and organizations in maintaining order ○​ The influence of transnational norms that cross national boundaries ○​ The impact of global economic and technological trends on state interactions The System in Theoretical Perspectives ​ Realism: Anarchy, as shaped by the distribution of power among global actors, dictates state behavior. ​ Liberalism: Emphasizes the role of interdependence among states, affecting shared approaches to global issues. ​ Marxism: Critiques capitalism's inherent inequalities and how they drive international relations. ​ Constructivism: Investigates shared norms and beliefs that influence how states perceive and interact with one another. Practice Questions ​ A set of practice questions designed to enhance understanding of the various levels of analysis in international relations. Practice Question Analysis ​ Analyzing differing viewpoints on international events encourages critical thinking:  ○​ Question 1: Why did Russia invade Georgia in 2008? ○​ Alice's View: Suggests that the motive was driven by Putin's personal vendetta against the West. ○​ Bob's View: Argues that NATO's expansion threatened Russia's sphere of influence and prompted the invasion. ○​ Carol's View: Points to nationalist pressures that existed within Russia, leading to aggressive military actions. ○​ Question 2: What caused the Iran-Saudi Arabia rivalry? ○​ David's View: Asserts that Saudi politics rely on Sunni identity for legitimacy, which exacerbates tension with Iran. ○​ Emma's View: Suggests that power vacuums from collapsed regional powers create competition between the two. ○​ Frank's View: Indicates that Mohammed bin Salman’s foreign policy strategies have escalated diplomatic tensions. ○​ Question 3: What caused Argentina to default on its debt in 2001? ○​ Diego's View: Believes that global market conditions were a driving force behind the decision. ○​ Elena's View: Holds that legislative gridlock hindered the necessary economic reforms, leading to default. ○​ Fatima's View: Points out that inexperienced leadership contributed significantly to poor crisis management. Conclusion on Levels of Analysis ​ Purpose: Levels of analysis assist in identifying causal hypotheses in international relations by providing structured frameworks for examination. ​ Categories: These levels include: ○​ Systemic ○​ State ○​ Individual ○​ Foreign Policy When Individuals Matter More ​ Key scenarios where individual analysis is critical: ○​ At times of instability in domestic political institutions ○​ During crises in foreign policy decision-making ○​ When new or transitioning governmental systems are in place  ○​ In cases when issues are rare or exceptional, requiring individual leadership to navigate complex situations. Symbolism of Analysis Levels ​ Discussion Prompt: Analyze how specific imagery can symbolize the levels of analysis or theoretical perspectives within the framework of international relations