Principles of Behaviour PDF

Appendix- A Brief Guide to Behaviour Self-Management From a behavioural perspective, difficulties in self control typically involve having to choose between behaviours that lead to conflicting outcomes. This conflict can be characterized in different ways, but a common one is to view it as a choice...

Appendix- A Brief Guide to Behaviour Self-Management From a behavioural perspective, difficulties in self control typically involve having to choose between behaviours that lead to conflicting outcomes. This conflict can be characterized in different ways, but a common one is to view it as a choice between highly valued but significantly delayed outcome, which can be called a larger later reward (LLR), and a lesser valued but more immediately available outcome, which can be called a smaller soon reward (SSR. from this perspective, a person who tends to choose SSR’s over LLR’s, is said to be “impulsive” , while a person who tends to choose LLR’s over SSR’s is said to exhibit “self control”. SSR’s are what we typically call temptations, and are a major obstacle that we face in attempting to achieve long term goals. Behaviour self management involves doing one or both of the following: 1. Increase the frequency of desirable behaviour– the behaviour that leads to the LLR, which may be effortful or unpleasant in the short run but beneficial in the long run. 2. Decrease the frequency of undesirable behaviour– The SSR which may be easy and pleasant in the short run but harmful in the long run. General Guidelines for Effective Self-management 1. Don't rely on willpower: for most of us, willpower has little or no effect on our behaviour 2. Be proactive rather than reactive: because temptations are difficult to resist when they become imminent, effective self control usually involves doing something ahead of time to prevent us from succumbing to temptation when it arises. 3. Alter the environment to alter your behaviour: the things you do ahead of time to manage your behaviour will typically include altering some aspect of your environment. Basic strategies of Behaviour Self Management: Almost all self management tactics can be classified as involving one or more of these strategies: 1. Self-monitoring- track the occurrence of the “target behaviour” you wish to change. This will give you an accurate picture of the behaviour prior to trying to change it (the baseline phase) and during intervention (the treatment phase). The act of self monitoring by itself can sometimes lead to a significant improvement of behaviour. In what is known as functional assessment, one can also track the antecedents (ie., Cues) that precede the behaviour as well as the consequences that follow it; this will give you a sense of the present environmental influences on that behaviour. Conducting self monitoring and functional assessment can be  quite effortful as a result of which people often end up abandoning their attempts at self management. 2. Manipulate the antecedent cues to the behaviour- this often involves altering the environmental cues (S𝐷’s) that precede the target behaviour and thereby facilitate its occurrence. Two basic strategies are: a. Increase the cues for desirable behaviour: for example making specific plans for when we study or exercise each week will, for many students, effectively increase the likelihood of those behaviours. Another possibility is to essentially “habituate” a behaviour by repeatedly practicing it in the presence of certain cues. b. Reduce the cues for undesirable behaviour: a variation on this strategy is to narrow the cues for undesirable behaviour, in which the behaviour is allowed to occur only in specific circumstances, for example only allowing yourself to smoke when you are sitting on a chair in your garage may be a useful first step in to cutting out smoking altogether. 3. Manipulate how effortful it is to perform the behaviour: this tactic is often described as increasing or decreasing the amount of “friction” involved in performing the behaviour. The two options are: a. Make the desirable behaviour less effortful to perform: even slight reductions in response effort can be surprisingly effective. b. Make the undesirable behaviour more effortful to perform 4. Manipulate how motivated your are to perform the behaviour: this strategy involves procedure that alter how attracted we are to the outcome of th behaviour (referred to as motivating behaviours), once again here are two options: a. Increase your motivation for the desirable behaviour b. Decrease your motivation for the undesirable behaviour 5. Manipulate the consequences for the behaviour: a critical aspect of achieving a long term goal (LLR) is to somehow arrange for more immediate consequences along the way. Basic tactics to consider include the following: a. Reward yourself for desirable behaviour b. Punish yourself for the occurrence of undesirable behaviour c. Create and accomplish sub goals d. Make a commitment response 6. Change the target behaviour: when trying to eliminate an undesirable behaviour, it is sometimes better to focus on strengthening an alternative behaviour to replace it. **Final includes heavy emphasis on following chapters** Summary of Chapter 6: Operant Conditioning Thorndike's Law of Effect Key Principle: Behaviors that lead to satisfying consequences are more likely to be repeated, while those that lead to unsatisfying consequences are less likely to be repeated. Classic Experiment: Thorndike's experiments with cats in puzzle boxes demonstrated how cats learned to escape more quickly by associating a specific behavior (pressing a lever) with a positive outcome (food). Skinner's Operant Conditioning Skinner Box: A controlled environment where animals can perform specific behaviors (like pressing a lever) to receive rewards (like food). Operant Behavior: Voluntary behaviors that are influenced by their consequences. Respondent Behavior: Involuntary, reflexive behaviors that are triggered by specific stimuli. Shaping Behavior: A technique used to gradually mold behavior by reinforcing successive approximations toward a desired response. Skinner's work highlighted the importance of reinforcement and punishment in shaping behavior. By understanding the principles of operant conditioning, we can gain insights into how learning occurs and how behavior can be modified. Operant Conditioning Operant Conditioning is a type of learning where the frequency of a behavior is influenced by its consequences. It involves three key components: 1. Response: The specific behavior that is performed. 2. Consequence: The outcome that follows the behavior, which can either increase or decrease its frequency.  3. Discriminative Stimulus: A cue or signal that indicates whether a particular response will be reinforced or punished. Types of Consequences: Reinforcer: A consequence that strengthens a behavior. ○ Positive Reinforcement: Adding a positive stimulus (e.g., food, praise) to increase behavior. ○ Negative Reinforcement: Removing a negative stimulus (e.g., shock, noise) to increase behavior. Punisher: A consequence that weakens a behavior. ○ Positive Punishment: Adding a negative stimulus (e.g., spanking, scolding) to decrease behavior. ○ Negative Punishment: Removing a positive stimulus (e.g., taking away a toy, time-out) to decrease behavior. Extinction: The process of weakening a behavior by withholding reinforcement. Discriminative Stimuli: Cues that signal whether a particular behavior will be reinforced or punished. They help organisms learn to associate specific behaviors with specific contexts. In essence, operant conditioning explains how behaviors are shaped and maintained through the interplay of responses, consequences, and environmental cues. By understanding these principles, we can gain insights into how learning occurs and how behavior can be modified. Four Types of Operant Conditioning Contingencies Operant conditioning involves manipulating consequences to influence behavior. There are four primary types of contingencies: Positive Reinforcement Definition: Adding a positive stimulus to increase a behavior. Example: Praising a child for completing homework. Negative Reinforcement Definition: Removing a negative stimulus to increase a behavior. Example: Taking a painkiller to relieve a headache. ○ Escape Behavior: Removing oneself from an aversive situation (e.g., leaving a noisy room). ○ Avoidance Behavior: Preventing an aversive situation from occurring (e.g., studying to avoid failing a test). Positive Punishment Definition: Adding a negative stimulus to decrease a behavior. Example: Yelling at a child for misbehaving. Negative Punishment Definition: Removing a positive stimulus to decrease a behavior. Example: Taking away a child's phone for breaking curfew. It's important to note that the terms "positive" and "negative" in this context do not refer to the pleasantness or unpleasantness of the stimulus, but rather to the addition or removal of a stimulus. Further Distinctions in Positive Reinforcement Timing of Reinforcement Immediate Reinforcement: Reinforcement delivered immediately after a behavior strengthens the behavior more effectively. Delayed Reinforcement: Reinforcement delivered after a delay can be less effective, especially for younger individuals or those with shorter attention spans. Types of Reinforcers  Primary Reinforcers: Innately reinforcing stimuli, such as food, water, or warmth.1 Secondary Reinforcers: Stimuli that acquire reinforcing properties through association with primary reinforcers.2 Examples include money, praise, or tokens. ○ Generalized Reinforcers: Secondary reinforcers that can be exchanged for a variety of primary reinforcers (e.g., money).3 Motivation for Behavior Intrinsic Reinforcement: The satisfaction or enjoyment derived from performing a behavior itself.4 Extrinsic Reinforcement: Reinforcement provided by external factors, such as rewards or praise.5 Natural vs. Contrived Reinforcers Natural Reinforcers: Reinforcers that are naturally associated with a behavior (e.g., the taste of food after eating).6 Contrived Reinforcers: Reinforcers that are deliberately arranged to modify behavior (e.g., praise for completing a task). Shaping Behavior Shaping involves reinforcing successive approximations toward a desired behavior.7 This technique is useful for teaching complex behaviors that are not likely to occur spontaneously.8 Chapter 7: Schedules and Theories of reinforcement A Deeper Dive into Schedules of Reinforcement Understanding the Basics Schedules of Reinforcement are the rules that determine when a behavior will be reinforced. These schedules significantly impact the rate, pattern, and persistence of a behavior. Continuous Reinforcement (CRF): Every instance of a desired behavior is reinforced. While effective for initial learning, it can lead to rapid extinction if reinforcement is stopped. Intermittent Reinforcement: Only some responses are reinforced. More resistant to extinction compared to continuous reinforcement. Four main types: 1. Fixed-Ratio (FR): Reinforcement occurs after a fixed number of responses. Example: A rat receives a food pellet after every 10 lever presses. Behavior Pattern: High response rate with post-reinforcement pauses. 2. Variable-Ratio (VR): Reinforcement occurs after a variable number of responses. Example: A slot machine pays out after an average of 10 pulls, but the exact number varies. Behavior Pattern: High and steady response rate, often with little or no pause. 3. Fixed-Interval (FI): Reinforcement occurs after a fixed amount of time has elapsed, regardless of the number of responses. Example: A paycheck is received every two weeks. Behavior Pattern: Scalloped response pattern, with a pause after reinforcement followed by an increasing rate of responding as the interval nears its end. 4. Variable-Interval (VI): Reinforcement occurs after a variable amount of time has elapsed. Example: Checking your email, not knowing when a new message will arrive. Behavior Pattern: Steady, moderate response rate. Complex Schedules  Conjunctive Schedules: Two or more simple schedules must be completed to obtain reinforcement. Chained Schedules: A sequence of simple schedules, each leading to the next and ultimately to a terminal reinforcer. Concurrent Schedules: Multiple schedules are available simultaneously, allowing for choice between them. Factors Influencing Schedule Effectiveness: Magnitude of Reinforcement: Larger reinforcers can strengthen behavior and overcome longer delays. Immediacy of Reinforcement: Immediate reinforcement is more effective than delayed reinforcement. Quality of Reinforcement: Higher-quality reinforcers are more effective. Motivation: The organism's motivation to engage in the behavior can influence the effectiveness of reinforcement. By understanding these schedules, we can effectively shape and modify behavior in various settings, from animal training to human behavior modification. Theories of Reinforcement in Operant Conditioning There are several theories that attempt to explain why reinforcement strengthens behaviors: 1. Drive Reduction Theory (Clark Hull, 1943) This theory proposes that reinforcers are events that reduce internal biological drives (e.g., hunger, thirst). When a behavior leads to a reduction in a drive, it becomes more likely to be repeated in the future. For example, a hungry rat's food-seeking behavior is reinforced by obtaining food, which reduces its hunger drive. 2. Incentive Motivation This theory focuses on the reinforcing properties of the reinforcer itself, independent of internal drives. Certain stimuli are inherently attractive and motivate organisms to seek them out. For example, a rat might find the taste of chocolate chips inherently rewarding, leading it to work to obtain them. 3. Premack Principle This principle states that a high-frequency behavior can be used to reinforce a low-frequency behavior. It suggests that reinforcers can be behaviors rather than just stimuli. For example, a child might be allowed to play video games (high-frequency behavior) for completing their homework (low-frequency behavior). 4. Response Deprivation Hypothesis This theory proposes that behaviors can be reinforcing when they are restricted and their natural frequency is reduced. When an organism is deprived of a preferred behavior, the opportunity to perform that behavior can become reinforcing. For example, a dog might find playing fetch more reinforcing after being confined indoors for a long time. 5. Behavioral Bliss Point Approach This theory suggests that organisms will distribute their behavior across various activities to maximize overall reinforcement. They seek a "bliss point" where they receive an optimal level of stimulation from different reinforcers. For example, a cat might alternate between playing with a toy, napping, and grooming to achieve a balance of enjoyable activities. These theories offer different explanations for why reinforcement works. Understanding these diverse perspectives can provide a more comprehensive understanding of how reinforcers influence behavior. Chapter 8- Extinction A Deeper Dive into Schedules of Reinforcement and Stimulus Control Schedules of Reinforcement: A Closer Look Intermittent Reinforcement Schedules Fixed-Ratio (FR) Schedules: ○ Reinforcement is delivered after a fixed number of responses. ○ Produces high response rates with post-reinforcement pauses. ○ Example: A rat receives a food pellet for every 10 lever presses. Variable-Ratio (VR) Schedules: ○ Reinforcement is delivered after a variable number of responses. ○ Produces high, steady response rates with little or no post-reinforcement pause. ○ Example: A slot machine pays out after an average of 10 pulls, but the exact number varies. Fixed-Interval (FI) Schedules: ○ Reinforcement is delivered for the first response after a fixed amount of time has elapsed. ○ Produces a scalloped response pattern, with a pause after reinforcement followed by an increasing rate of responding as the interval nears its end. ○ Example: A paycheck is received every two weeks. Variable-Interval (VI) Schedules:  ○ Reinforcement is delivered for the first response after a variable amount of time has elapsed. ○ Produces a steady, moderate response rate. ○ Example: Checking email, not knowing when a new message will arrive. Extinction and Its Side Effects Extinction Burst: A temporary increase in responding following the removal of reinforcement. Increased Variability: More diverse responses may occur as the organism tries to reinstate the reinforcement. Emotional Responses: Frustration, aggression, or depression-like behaviors may emerge. Resurgence: The reappearance of previously reinforced behaviors. Stimulus Control Discriminative Stimulus (SD): A stimulus that signals the availability of reinforcement for a specific behavior. Stimulus Control: When a behavior occurs reliably in the presence of a specific stimulus. Factors Affecting Resistance to Extinction: Schedule of Reinforcement: Intermittent reinforcement schedules generally lead to greater resistance to extinction than continuous reinforcement. Magnitude of Reinforcement: Larger reinforcers can increase resistance to extinction. History of Reinforcement: A longer history of reinforcement can increase resistance to extinction. Deprivation Level: A higher level of deprivation can increase resistance to extinction. Applications of Schedules of Reinforcement: Behavior Modification: Used to shape and modify behavior in various settings, such as education, therapy, and workplace training. Animal Training: Used to train animals to perform specific tasks. Product Design: Used to design products that are engaging and rewarding to use. By understanding the principles of schedules of reinforcement and stimulus control, we can effectively influence behavior and promote desired outcomes. A Deeper Dive into Stimulus Control: Generalization, Discrimination, and Contrast Stimulus Generalization and Discrimination Operant conditioning is also influenced by how stimuli are perceived: Stimulus Generalization: The tendency for a learned response to occur in the presence of stimuli similar to the original discriminative stimulus (SD). ○ The more similar the stimulus, the stronger the response. ○ This is represented by a generalization gradient, showing the strength of the response across similar stimuli. Stimulus Discrimination: The ability to distinguish between the SD and a similar stimulus (S∆) and respond differently. ○ More generalization means less discrimination, and vice versa. Discrimination Training: Reinforcing responses to the SD and not to S∆, gradually strengthening discrimination. Peak Shift Effect: An interesting phenomenon after discrimination training. The peak of the generalization gradient can shift away from the SD towards a stimulus even more different from S∆. Multiple Schedules and Behavioral Contrast Multiple Schedules: Schedules with multiple components, each with its own SD and reinforcement schedule. Behavioral Contrast: When reinforcement changes in one component of a multiple schedule, the response rate in the other component changes in the opposite direction. ○ Positive Contrast: Decreased reinforcement in one component leads to increased responding in the other.  ○ Negative Contrast: Increased reinforcement in one component leads to decreased responding in the other. ○ Anticipatory Contrast: Responding changes in anticipation of upcoming changes in reinforcement. Errorless Discrimination Training This technique aims to minimize errors during discrimination training and reduce associated negative effects: 1. Introduce S∆ early in training, after responding to SD is established. 2. Present S∆ in a weak form initially and gradually strengthen it (fading). By understanding these concepts, we can create training procedures that effectively establish desired behavior and minimize confusion in the organism. Chapter 9: Escape, Avoidance and, Punishment 9.1 escape and Avoidance: A Deeper Dive into Negative Reinforcement and Avoidance Behavior Negative Reinforcement: A Closer Look Negative reinforcement is a powerful tool for shaping behavior. It involves the removal of an aversive stimulus following a specific behavior, which increases the likelihood of that behavior occurring in the future. Two primary types of negative reinforcement: 1. Escape Behavior: The organism performs a behavior to terminate an ongoing aversive stimulus. ○ Example: A rat pressing a lever to turn off a shock.  2. Avoidance Behavior: The organism performs a behavior to prevent an aversive stimulus from occurring. ○ Example: A person with social anxiety avoiding social situations to prevent feelings of anxiety. Two-Process Theory of Avoidance This theory proposes that avoidance behavior is maintained by two processes: 1. Classical Conditioning: A neutral stimulus (CS) is paired with an aversive stimulus (US), leading to a conditioned fear response to the CS. 2. Operant Conditioning: The avoidance response is negatively reinforced by the reduction of fear. Limitations of the Two-Process Theory Persistence of Avoidance: Avoidance behaviors can persist even after the aversive stimulus is no longer present, suggesting that factors beyond fear reduction may be involved. Role of Safety Signals: Certain cues may signal the absence of the aversive stimulus, further reinforcing avoidance behaviors. Treatment of Avoidance Behavior: Exposure Therapy Exposure therapy is a behavioral technique used to treat anxiety disorders, including obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD). It involves gradually exposing individuals to feared situations or stimuli while preventing them from engaging in avoidance behaviors. Exposure and Response Prevention (ERP): Exposure: The individual is exposed to the feared situation or stimulus. Response Prevention: The individual is prevented from engaging in avoidance behaviors. By confronting fears and preventing avoidance, ERP can help individuals overcome anxiety and compulsive behaviors. Understanding the mechanisms underlying negative reinforcement and avoidance behavior is crucial for developing effective interventions to address these challenges. A Deeper Dive into Punishment and Its Implications Types of Punishment While positive and negative punishment are the primary categories, it's useful to further categorize punishment based on its nature and delivery: Primary Punishers: Innately aversive stimuli, such as pain or extreme temperatures. Secondary Punishers: Stimuli that become aversive through association with primary punishers (e.g., a scolding voice). Intrinsic Punishment: The aversive nature of the behavior itself (e.g., the pain of touching a hot stove). Extrinsic Punishment: An aversive stimulus added to a behavior (e.g., a spanking). The Impact of Punishment While punishment can be effective in reducing specific behaviors, it's important to consider its potential drawbacks: Suppression, Not Elimination: Punishment often suppresses behavior rather than eliminating it. When the punishing stimulus is removed, the behavior may return. Emotional Side Effects: Punishment can lead to negative emotional responses, such as fear, anger, and resentment. Modeling Aggressive Behavior: Observing punishment can teach individuals that aggression is an acceptable way to solve problems.  Generalization: Punishment for one behavior may lead to a decrease in other desirable behaviors. Learned Helplessness: If punishment is consistently applied without the opportunity to escape or avoid it, individuals may develop a sense of helplessness and stop trying. Effective Use of Punishment While punishment should be used judiciously, there are strategies to minimize its negative effects: Immediate and Consistent: Punishment should be delivered immediately after the undesired behavior and consistently each time the behavior occurs. Sufficiently Aversive: The punishment should be strong enough to deter the behavior without being overly harsh. Combined with Positive Reinforcement: Reward alternative, desirable behaviors to reinforce them and reduce the need for punishment. Avoid Physical Punishment: Physical punishment can lead to long-term negative consequences, including physical and emotional harm. Use Time-Out or Response Cost: These techniques involve removing a positive reinforcer, which can be less aversive than physical punishment. It's important to remember that while punishment can be a useful tool in behavior modification, it should be used in conjunction with positive reinforcement to promote desired behaviors and create a positive learning environment. Chapter 10: Choice,matching, and self control 10.1 Concurrent Schedules and the Matching Law Concurrent Schedules Concurrent schedules of reinforcement are a fundamental experimental paradigm in behavioral psychology. They involve the simultaneous presentation of two or more independent schedules of reinforcement, each associated with a specific response option. This setup allows researchers to study choice behavior and decision-making processes. Key Characteristics: Simultaneous Presentation: Two or more schedules operate concurrently. Independent Schedules: Each schedule operates independently of the other(s). Choice Behavior: The organism can choose between the different schedules. The Matching Law The matching law is a quantitative relationship that describes how organisms allocate their responses across different schedules of reinforcement. It states that the relative rate of responding to a particular schedule will match the relative rate of reinforcement obtained from that schedule. Mathematical Formulation: 1. RA / (RA + RB) = RA / (RA + RB) Where: RA and RB are the response rates on schedules A and B, respectively. RA and RB are the reinforcement rates on schedules A and B, respectively. Implications of the Matching Law: Predictive Power: The matching law can accurately predict how organisms will distribute their behavior across different choice options. Flexibility and Adaptability: Organisms can adjust their behavior to maximize reinforcement, even in complex environments. Understanding Choice Behavior: The matching law provides insights into the factors that influence decision-making, such as the value of rewards and the cost of responding. Deviations from Matching While the matching law provides a robust account of choice behavior, there are instances where deviations occur: Undermatching: The organism responds less to the richer schedule than predicted. Overmatching: The organism responds more to the richer schedule than predicted. Bias: The organism shows a preference for one alternative over another, regardless of the relative reinforcement rates. These deviations can be influenced by various factors, such as the cost of switching between alternatives, the salience of the stimuli, and the organism's motivational state. Melioration Theory Melioration theory provides an alternative explanation for choice behavior. It suggests that organisms tend to shift their behavior towards the option that has the higher immediate value, regardless of the long-term consequences. This can lead to suboptimal outcomes, as organisms may neglect more valuable options in favor of immediate gratification. Key Points: Immediate Reinforcement: Melioration emphasizes the importance of immediate rewards. Suboptimal Choices: It can lead to suboptimal outcomes, as organisms may not consider the long-term consequences of their choices. Real-World Implications: Melioration has implications for understanding a variety of human behaviors, such as addiction, impulsive decision-making, and procrastination. By understanding the principles of concurrent schedules and the matching law, we can gain valuable insights into how organisms make choices and allocate their behavior. These principles have broad applications in various fields, including psychology, economics, and behavioral ecology. 10.2- self control Self-control, the ability to resist immediate gratification in favor of long-term goals, is a fundamental aspect of human behavior. It involves a complex interplay of cognitive, emotional, and motivational processes. Skinner's Perspective: A Behavioral Approach B.F. Skinner viewed self-control as a behavioral process involving controlling responses that influence controlled responses. These controlling responses can include: Physical Restraint: Physically manipulating the environment to avoid temptation. Deprivation and Satiation: Altering the reinforcing value of stimuli through deprivation or satiation. Doing Something Else: Engaging in alternative activities to distract oneself from temptation. Self-Reinforcement and Self-Punishment: Using rewards and punishments to influence one's own behavior. The Role of Time and Delay A key factor in self-control is the temporal discounting of rewards. The value of a reward decreases as the delay to its receipt increases. This phenomenon can lead to impulsive choices, as immediate rewards often outweigh delayed ones. The Ainslie-Rachlin Model This model explains how the value of a reward changes over time. It suggests that the value of a reward increases rapidly as its delivery becomes imminent. This can lead to preference reversals, where individuals may initially prefer a larger, later reward but choose a smaller, sooner reward as the delay to the larger reward increases. Strategies for Enhancing Self-Control Several strategies can be employed to enhance self-control:  Delaying Gratification: Practicing self-control in small steps can help build resistance to temptation. Commitment Response: Making a public commitment to a goal can increase motivation and accountability. Goal Setting: Breaking down large goals into smaller, more manageable subgoals can make them seem less daunting. Self-Monitoring: Tracking one's behavior can help identify patterns and triggers for impulsive behavior. Mindfulness: Paying attention to the present moment can help reduce impulsive urges. Environmental Design: Structuring one's environment to minimize exposure to temptations. By understanding the psychological mechanisms underlying self-control and implementing effective strategies, individuals can improve their ability to resist temptation and achieve their long-term goals. Chapter 11- Observational Learning and Rule-Governed Behavior Observational Learning: Beyond Imitation Observational learning is a powerful tool for acquiring new behaviors and knowledge. While imitation, the direct replication of observed behavior, is a key component, it's not the only mechanism at play. Other Mechanisms of Observational Learning: Vicarious Reinforcement and Punishment: Observing the consequences of a model's behavior can influence the observer's motivation to perform similar actions. Vicarious reinforcement increases the likelihood of imitation, while vicarious punishment decreases it. Self-Efficacy: Belief in one's ability to perform a task can significantly impact observational learning. Observing a successful model can enhance self-efficacy, making individuals more likely to attempt similar behaviors. Goal Setting and Planning: Observing others can inspire goal setting and planning. By seeing how others achieve their goals, individuals can develop their own strategies and plans. Factors Influencing Observational Learning: Attention: The observer must pay attention to the model's behavior. Factors such as the model's attractiveness, similarity to the observer, and the salience of the behavior influence attention. Retention: The observer must encode the information in memory. This involves processes such as rehearsal, imagery, and verbal coding. Motor Reproduction: The observer must have the physical and cognitive skills to reproduce the observed behavior. Motivation: The observer must be motivated to perform the behavior. This can be influenced by factors such as the perceived value of the outcome, the expectation of reinforcement or punishment, and the observer's personal goals. Rule-Governed Behavior: The Power of Language Rule-governed behavior involves learning to behave in specific ways based on verbal instructions or rules. It allows us to acquire new behaviors without direct experience, making it a highly efficient form of learning. Key Characteristics of Rule-Governed Behavior: Flexibility: Rules can be applied to a wide range of situations, promoting adaptability. Efficiency: Rules can accelerate learning by providing a shortcut to understanding contingencies. Insensitivity to Contingencies: Rule-governed behavior can sometimes be less sensitive to actual contingencies, leading to suboptimal outcomes. Limitations of Rule-Governed Behavior: Rigidity: Rules can sometimes be too rigid and inflexible, limiting creativity and adaptability. Over Reliance on Rules: Excessive reliance on rules can hinder spontaneous and intuitive responses. Insensitivity to Context: Rules may not always account for the nuances of specific situations. The Role of Self-Regulation Self-regulation involves the use of personal rules to control one's own behavior. It involves setting goals, monitoring progress, and using self-reinforcement and self-punishment to maintain motivation and achieve desired outcomes. By understanding the mechanisms of observational learning and rule-governed behavior, we can gain insights into how we learn and how we can influence our own behavior and the behavior of others. These principles have implications for education, therapy, and other areas of human development. verbal behaviour Verbal behaviour is behaviour that involves language and results in consequence, it can be spoken, written or gestural and it requires a speaker and a listener. Mand: is a verbal behavioural demand that requests or seeks something that the speaker wants or needs. Tact: (contacting something) is verbal behaviour that labels or identifies and environmental event. The form of the behaviour is determined by the object or event being referred to. Rule: a concept that refers to the influence of rules and guidelines on human behavior. In this context, rules can be formal, like laws and social norms, or informal, such as personal beliefs and values. Instruction: An instruction, in the context of behavior psychology, is a verbal or written statement that provides guidance or direction for a particular behavior or task. It's a form of rule-governed behavior, where individuals follow specific guidelines or commands to achieve a desired outcome. Chapter 12- Biological Dispositions in Learning Taste Aversion and Preparedness Taste Aversion Conditioning: Conditioned Taste Aversion (CTA) is a powerful form of classical conditioning where an organism learns to associate a particular taste with illness. This association can form rapidly, often after a single pairing, and can persist for a long time. Key characteristics of CTA: Rapid Acquisition: Unlike other forms of classical conditioning, CTA can be learned in a single trial. This rapid learning is adaptive, as it allows organisms to quickly avoid potentially harmful substances.  Long-Delay Learning: The association between the taste and illness can form even if there's a significant delay between consumption and illness. This is unusual in classical conditioning, where the conditioned stimulus (CS) and unconditioned stimulus (US) typically occur close together in time. Specificity of Association: CTA is highly specific. Organisms are more likely to associate illness with a novel taste than with other stimuli present at the time, such as sights or sounds. This specificity is thought to be adaptive, as it allows organisms to identify and avoid specific toxic foods. The Role of Preparedness Preparedness refers to the innate tendency of an organism to associate certain stimuli with certain outcomes. In the case of CTA, organisms are biologically predisposed to associate taste with illness. This preparedness may have evolved because it helps organisms avoid toxic substances and survive. Garcia and Koelling's Experiment: A classic experiment by Garcia and Koelling demonstrated the role of preparedness in CTA. Rats were exposed to a compound stimulus: a sweet taste, a bright light, and a loud noise. Some rats were then given a radiation treatment that induced nausea, while others received an electric shock to their feet. Group 1 (Nausea): These rats developed an aversion to the sweet taste but not to the light or noise. Group 2 (Shock): These rats developed an aversion to the light and noise but not to the sweet taste. This experiment showed that rats are biologically prepared to associate taste with illness and audiovisual cues with pain. This specificity of association is likely adaptive, as it allows organisms to quickly learn to avoid harmful stimuli. Implications and Applications  Food Aversions: CTA can explain why people may develop strong aversions to certain foods after a single negative experience. Chemotherapy: Patients undergoing chemotherapy often experience nausea and vomiting. To minimize food aversions, it's recommended that patients eat bland foods before treatment. Wildlife Management: CTA can be used to deter pests from damaging crops or livestock. For example, a taste aversive can be added to a bait to make it unpleasant. By understanding the mechanisms underlying CTA, researchers can develop strategies to prevent and treat food aversions, improve the quality of life for cancer patients, and protect crops and livestock. Operant-Respondent Interactions The Blurred Lines Between Operant and Respondent Behaviors The distinction between operant and respondent behaviors, while often helpful, can sometimes be blurred. Several phenomena highlight this interplay: Bolles's Species-Specific Defense Reactions (SSDRs) Bolles proposed that certain behaviors, such as freezing or fleeing, are elicited by aversive stimuli rather than being learned through operant conditioning. These innate responses, known as SSDRs, can interfere with the acquisition of operant avoidance responses. For instance, a rat might instinctively freeze when presented with a shock, making it difficult to learn an effective avoidance response, such as running to a safe area. Instinctive Drift Instinctive drift occurs when an animal's innate behaviors interfere with a learned behavior. This can happen when an animal is trained to perform a behavior that is incompatible with its natural instincts. For example, a raccoon trained to deposit coins in a piggy bank might revert to its natural behavior of rubbing the coins together, even though this behavior is not reinforced. Sign Tracking and Autoshaping  Sign Tracking: Animals may approach a stimulus that signals the delivery of a reward, even if the stimulus itself is not directly associated with the reward. This behavior, while seemingly goal-directed, is often elicited by the stimulus, rather than being reinforced by the reward. Autoshaping: A specific form of sign tracking where an animal, such as a pigeon, automatically pecks at a key that signals the delivery of food, even if pecking the key is not necessary to obtain the food. These phenomena demonstrate that the boundaries between operant and respondent conditioning are not always clear-cut. Understanding these interactions is crucial for effective behavior modification and animal training. A Deeper Dive into Adjunctive Behavior Adjunctive behavior is a fascinating phenomenon in behavioral psychology where an organism engages in excessive, seemingly irrelevant behaviors during periods of inactivity between reinforcement deliveries. This behavior often emerges as a side effect of intermittent reinforcement schedules, particularly fixed-interval (FI) and fixed-time (FT) schedules. The Mechanics of Adjunctive Behavior To understand adjunctive behavior, consider the following: 1. Inter-Reinforcement Interval (IRI): This is the time period between two successive reinforcements. 2. Adjunctive Behavior: This occurs during the IRI, often as a way to fill time and reduce boredom or frustration. 3. Reinforcement Schedule: The specific reinforcement schedule can influence the type and intensity of adjunctive behavior. For example, longer IRIs may lead to more intense adjunctive behaviors. Types of Adjunctive Behavior Adjunctive behaviors can manifest in various forms, including: Excessive Drinking: This is a common form of adjunctive behavior, often observed in laboratory animals. Drug Use: Animals on intermittent reinforcement schedules may engage in excessive drug consumption. Pica: This involves the ingestion of non-food substances, such as dirt or paper. Aggression: Animals may exhibit aggressive behavior towards other animals or inanimate objects. Stereotypies: Repetitive, seemingly purposeless behaviors, like pacing or rocking. Theoretical Explanations Several theories have been proposed to explain adjunctive behavior: 1. Displacement Activity: This theory suggests that adjunctive behaviors serve as a way to channel excess energy or reduce anxiety during periods of inactivity. 2. Schedule-Induced Polydipsia (SIP): This theory focuses on the role of physiological factors, such as disruptions in hormonal balance, in driving excessive drinking behavior. 3. Behavioral Economics: This perspective views adjunctive behavior as a cost-benefit analysis, where the organism weighs the costs and benefits of engaging in the behavior. Implications for Human Behavior Adjunctive behavior has implications for understanding human behavior, particularly in the context of addictive behaviors. Compulsive gambling, drug addiction, and overeating can be seen as maladaptive forms of adjunctive behavior. By understanding the factors that contribute to adjunctive behavior, researchers can develop effective interventions to prevent and treat these disorders. Key Takeaways: Adjunctive behavior is a complex phenomenon that can have significant implications for both animal and human behavior.  It is influenced by a variety of factors, including reinforcement schedules, physiological state, and environmental conditions. Understanding the mechanisms underlying adjunctive behavior can help us develop strategies to prevent and treat maladaptive behaviors, such as addiction and compulsive disorders. By delving deeper into the intricacies of adjunctive behavior, we can gain valuable insights into the nature of learning, motivation, and behavior. Activity Anorexia: A Model of Compulsive Behavior Activity anorexia is a compelling animal model that sheds light on the complex interplay between feeding, activity, and the development of disordered eating behaviors. Key Characteristics of Activity Anorexia: Restricted Feeding Schedule: The core of the procedure involves limiting food access to a specific time window each day. Increased Activity: As food access becomes restricted, animals, particularly rats, exhibit a dramatic increase in physical activity, such as wheel running. Negative Feedback Loop: A vicious cycle emerges, where increased activity leads to decreased food intake, which in turn fuels further increases in activity. Emaciation and Death: If left unchecked, activity anorexia can lead to severe weight loss and, ultimately, death. Similarities to Anorexia Nervosa: Activity anorexia shares striking similarities with anorexia nervosa, a serious eating disorder in humans: Restricted Eating: Both involve a significant reduction in food intake. Increased Activity: Both conditions are often accompanied by excessive physical activity. Negative Body Image: Individuals with anorexia nervosa often have a distorted body image, perceiving themselves as overweight even when they are severely underweight.  Biological Basis: While the underlying biological mechanisms are complex and not fully understood, both conditions appear to involve dysregulation of neurotransmitter systems, particularly those involving dopamine and serotonin. Behavioral Systems Theory and Activity Anorexia: Behavioral systems theory provides a framework for understanding activity anorexia. It suggests that behaviors are organized into innate systems, such as feeding, mating, and aggression. In the case of activity anorexia, the feeding and activity systems become dysregulated, leading to a maladaptive pattern of behavior. Implications for Human Health: Understanding the mechanisms underlying activity anorexia can provide valuable insights into the development and treatment of eating disorders. By identifying the factors that contribute to the onset and maintenance of these disorders, researchers and clinicians can develop more effective interventions. It's important to note that while activity anorexia can provide a valuable model for studying eating disorders, it's crucial to recognize the limitations of animal models. Human eating disorders are influenced by a complex interplay of biological, psychological, and social factors that may not be fully captured in animal studies. Nonetheless, by studying activity anorexia, we can gain a better understanding of the underlying mechanisms that drive these disorders and develop more effective treatments. Short answer review: Chapters; appendix+ ch1 1. Define radical behaviourism and methodological behaviorism - Radical behaviourism is a brand of behaviorism that emphasizes the influences of the environment on overt behaviour, rejects the use of thoughts and feelings (internal events) to explain behaviour, and instead views thoughts and feelings as private behaviours that themselves can be explained through environmental influences.  - Methodological behaviorism is a brand of behaviorism that asserts that for methodological reasons psychologists should study environmental influences only on those behaviours that can be directly observed. 2. Define classical conditioning and operant conditioning and compare the differences - Classical conditioning is a type of learning in which a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a meaningful stimulus, thereby eliciting a similar response. - Operant conditioning is a type of learning in which behavior is shaped by its consequences. - Classical conditioning focuses on the association of two stimuli to elicit a reflective response, while operant conditioning is behaviour that is emitted based on the consequences that follow the behaviour, operant conditioning is said to be voluntary. Chapters 2+3 1. Draw a ABAB reversal design graph to assess the effectiveness of a treatment (self punishment) on the number of cigarettes smoked. 2. Diagram the two steps of classical conditioning procedure Before conditioning: Food (US) —> Salivation (UR) Metronome (NS) —-> No salivation (-) During conditioning: Metronome (NS): Food (US) —> Salivation (UR) After Conditioning: Metronome (CS) —> salivation (CR) Chapters 4+5 1. Diagram two conditioning procedures from chapter 4- higher order conditioning, sensory preconditioning, US revaluation, overshadowing, blocking, and latent inhibition. Higher order conditioning: a stimulus that is associated with the CS can also become a CS. Step 1: Basic conditioning of a fear response to wasps Wasp (𝑁𝑆1): Sting (US) → Fear (UR) Wasp (𝐶𝑆1) →Fear (CR) Step 2: higher order conditioning of the trash bin through its association with wasps Trash bin (𝑁𝑆2): Wasp (𝐶𝑆1) →Fear (CR) Trash bin (𝐶𝑆2): →Fear (CR) Sensory preconditioning: when one stimulus is conditioned as a CS, another stimulus with which it was previously paired can also become a CS. Step 1: preconditioning phase in which the toolshed is associated with wasps. Toolshed (𝑁𝑆2): Wasps (𝑁𝑆1) Step 2: conditioning of wasps as a 𝐶𝑆1  Wasp (𝑁𝑆1): Sting (US) → Fear (UR) Wasp (𝐶𝑆1) →Fear (CR) Step 3: presentation of the toolshed Toolshed (𝐶𝑆2) → Fear (CR) US revaluation:the postconditioning presentation of the US at a different level of intensity, thereby subsequently altering the strength of a response to the previously conditioned CS. the value or magnitude of the US is being changed. Metronome (NS): small amount of food (US) → Weak Salivation (UR) Metronome (CS) →Weak Salivation (CR) Change in value of unconditioned stimulus: Large amount of food (US) → Strong salivation (UR) Results after inflation revaluation: Metronome (CS) →Strong Salivation (CR) Overshadowing:the more salient member of a compound stimulus is more readily conditioned as a CS and thereby interferes with conditioning of the less salient member. Step 1: conditioning of a compound stimulus as a CS- simultaneous presentation of the two-bracketed stimuli. [Bright Light + Faint Metronome] (NS): Food (US) → Salivation (UR) [Bright Light + Faint Metronome] (CS) →Salivation (CR) Step 2: presentation of each member of the compound separately) Bright light (CS) → Salivation (CR) Faint metronome (NS) → No Salivation due to the bright light during the conditioning trials, no conditioning occurred to the faint metronome Blocking: the presence of an established CS during conditioning interferes with conditioning of a new CS. blocking is similar to overshadowing, except the compound consists of a neutral stimulus and a CS rather than two neutral stimuli that differ in salience. Step 1: conditioning of the light as a CS Light (NS): Food (US) → salivation (UR) Light (CS) → Salivation (CR) Step 2: several pairings of a compound stimulus consisting of the CS and an NS with the US) [Light (CS) + metronome (NS)]: Food (US) → Salivation (UR) Step 3: presentation of each member of the compound separately; the question at this point is whether conditioning occurred to the metronome. Light (CS0 → salivation (CR) Metronome (“NS”) → No salivation (-) in step 2, the present of the light blocked conditioning to the metronome. A simplistic way of thinking about what is happening is that the light already predicts the food, so the dog pays attention only to the light. As a result the metronome does not become an effective CS despite being paired with the food Latent Inhibition: a familiar stimulus is more difficult to condition as a CS than an unfamiliar (novel) stimulus. An unfamiliar stimulus is more readily conditioned as a CS than a familiar stimulus. Step 1: Stimulus pre-exposure phase in which a metronome is repeatedly presented alone Metronome (NS) (40 presentation) Step 2: conditioning trials in which the pre-exposed metronome is now paired with food Metronome (NS): Food (US) → Salivation (UR) (10 trials) Step 3: test trial to determine if conditioning has occurred to the metronome Metronome (NS) → No salivation (-) Chapter 6+7 1. Define operant conditioning and diagram an operant conditioning procedure using the stimulus and response provided. - Operant conditioning is a type of learning in which the future frequency of a is affected by its consequences. 2. Define and describe the response pattern for one of the four basic intermittent schedules. Fixed Ratio schedule (FR): reinforcement is contingent upon a fixed, predictable number of responses, - On a FR5 schedule a rat has to press a lever 5 times to obtain a food pellet. Example: 𝐷 𝐹𝑅10 𝑅 Light (𝑆 ): 𝐿𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 (𝑅) → Food (𝑆 ) Variable Ratio Schedules: reinforcement is contingent upon a varying, unpredictable number of responses. - For example, on a variable ratio 5 (VR 5) schedule, a rat has to emit an average of five lever presses for each food pellet. Fixed Interval Schedules: reinforcement is contingent upon the first response after a fixed, predictable period of time. Variable Interval schedules: reinforcement is contingent upon the first response after a varying, unpredictable period of time. Chapters 8+9 1. Diagram an operant discrimination training procedure using the stimuli and response provided (pg 308) 𝐷 Involves reinforcement of responding in the presence of one stimulus (the 𝑆 ) and not another stimulus - For example, If we wish to train a rat to discriminate between a 2000-Hz tone and a 1200-Hz tone, we would present the two tones in random order. Whenever the 2000-Hz tone sounds, a lever press produces food; whenever the 1200-Hz tone sounds, a lever press does not produce food.  𝐷 𝑅 2000-Hz tone (𝑆 ): lever press (𝑅) → Food (𝑆 ) ∆ 1200-Hz Tone (𝑆 ): lever press (𝑅) → No Food (--) 2. Clearly and fully define mowrer's two-process theory of avoidance. Two process theory of avoidance proposes that avoidance behaviour is the result of two distinct processes: (1) classical conditioning, in which a fear response come to be elicited by a CS; and (2) operant conditioning, in which moving away from the CS is negatively reinforced by a reduction in fear. Chapters 10+11 1. Provide definitions along with examples of each of the two following, verbal behaviour, mand, tact, rule, and instructions. Verbal behavior is a form of behavior that is reinforced through social interaction. It involves the use of language to communicate with others. Mand: A verbal behavior that requests or demands something. Example: A child saying "water" to request a drink. Tact: A verbal behavior that labels or identifies something. Example: A child saying "dog" when seeing a dog. Rule-Governed Behavior: Behavior controlled by verbal rules or instructions. Example: Following a recipe to bake a cake. Instructions: Specific verbal stimuli that specify a particular behavior and its consequences. Example: A teacher telling a student to raise their hand before speaking. 2. Using the matching equation, calculate the predicted proportion of responses that will be emitted on each of the two concurrent schedules of reinforcement. The concurrent schedules will consist of two of the following schedules: VI 10-sec, VI 15-sec, VI 20-sec, VI 30-sec, or VI 60-sec. For each schedule you will need to indicate the average number of reinforcers earned per min.