Presentation of Research 4th Year Arts 2024-25 PDF

Benha University Faculty of Arts Dept. of English Language and Literature BU_FART_ENGL53 Presentation of Research (Seminar) For Fourth Year Students Compiled by Dr. Wafaa M. El-Deftar Benha University...

Benha University Faculty of Arts Dept. of English Language and Literature BU_FART_ENGL53 Presentation of Research (Seminar) For Fourth Year Students Compiled by Dr. Wafaa M. El-Deftar Benha University 2024 – 2025 I  CONTENTS Subject Page Part I: Writing Thesis and Dissertation Proposals 1 Writing Thesis and Dissertation Proposals: Writing a Proposal: 2 Developing a Focused Project Proposal Writing and Anxiety: General Advice 4 Parts of a Proposal 7 Creating a Working Title 7 Abstract 11 Samples of Abstracts 22 Introduction/Background 26 Types of Introductions 30 Sample Introductions 34 Statement of the Problem and Thesis statements 37 Examples of Problem Statements 38 Purpose/Aims/Rationale/Research Questions 43 The Relationship between the Research Question, Hypotheses, 46 Specific Aims, and Long-Term Goals of the Project/Thesis Examples of Statements of Aims & Objectives 49 Review of Literature 51 Examples & Sample Literature Review 59 Methodology 65 Sample Methodology & Examples 68 Significance/Implications 68 Overview of Chapters 68 Timeline/Plan of Work 69 Bibliography & Appendices 70 More Proposal “Nuts and Bolts” 70 Evaluation of the Proposal 73 Some Links to Sample Proposals 74 Part II: Rules for Citation and Documentation 75 Types of information sources 76 Citations and references 77 Simplified Introduction to Modern Language Association (MLA) 78 Documentation Rules: Reference List I  Simplified Introduction to MLA In-Text Citation Rules 89 The American Psychological Association (APA) Documentation 92 Rules: Reference List The American Psychological Association (APA) Documentation 111 Rules: In- Text Citation Chicago-Style Citation Quick Guide: Chicago Author-Date Format 118 Part III: A Sample Dissertation Proposal 120 Bibliography 144 II  Part I Writing Thesis and Dissertation Proposals  1 Writing Thesis and Dissertation Proposals Writing a Proposal: Developing a Focused Project Writing Thesis/Dissertation Proposals: The Big Picture Your proposal describes your proposed plan of work: ◼ What you intend to study (scope and research questions). ◼ How you intend to study your topic (methodology). ◼ Why this topic needs to be studied (significance). ◼ When you will complete this work (timeline). ◼ (Occasionally) Where you will conduct this work. Writing Thesis/Dissertation Proposals Purpose: ◼ Justify and plan a research project. ◼ Show how your project contributes to existing research. ◼ Demonstrate that you understand how to conduct discipline-specific research in an acceptable time-frame. Audience: ◼ Your academic advisor and committee 2 Differences According To Disciplines There are considerable differences between the sciences, the humanities and the social sciences as far as students' range of topic choice, students' degree of freedom in choosing specific research questions, and the overall timing of the research project is concerned. The following table provides an overview of disciplinary influences on topic selection. 1 Writing Conference, Thesis, and Dissertation Proposals.” PennState Graduate Writing Center. (nd.) Accessed July 1st, 2017. https://sites.psu.edu/writingandrhetoric/files/2016/09/Writing-Conference- Thesis-and-Dissertation-Proposals-John-Fall-2010-umrd2t.pdf 2 Parry, S. and Hayden, M. (1996) The Range Of Practices in Higher Degree Supervision: Disciplinary and Organizational Differences. Paper presented at the 11th ViceChancellor’s Forum on Teaching. University of Sydney, 17 May 1996:2-3. 2  SCIENCES HUMANITIES SOCIAL SCIENCES/ APPLIED PROFESSIONAL FIELDS RANGE restricted range of students usually wide range of practices: choice; suitable topics required to initiate from close direction of made available by own topics; take into science model to department according account supervisor’s deliberate absence of to staff expertise, interests and direction of the humanities research interest and availability of data model research funding DEGREE students may have supervisor reluctant to topics and research OF more freedom on interfere in topic questions often derived FREEDOM deciding research choice, theoretical from field of student’s question, but often perspective, method, professional practice close direction by specific research supervisor question GUIDANCE/ research question supervisor guides identification of specific TIMING decided early; student in research question may schedules, timelines, understanding how the take considerable time as deadlines are important chosen theoretical students require a good framework is situated deal of disciplinary and against existing methodological grounding theoretical before they are able to development in the formulate specific research field or in related questions fields Exercise: Think about the following questions: Into what disciplinary area does your research field fall? Can it be clearly located in one area or does your research go across disciplines? Depending on the amount of preparation you have already done, what has been your experience with regard to topic choice, degree of freedom and guidance? If you are still very much at the beginning of your research, think about what problems you might encounter and how you might deal with them. 3 Proposal Writing and Anxiety: General Advice ◼ Establish a writing schedule. ◼ Begin by free-writing. ◼ Keep a small notebook with you to write down relevant thoughts. ◼ Say parts of your writing into a recording device. ◼ Compose different parts in different computer files or on different index cards. ◼ Start with more “clear cut” sections first. ◼ Understand that the proposal will be negotiated—be prepared to revise! ◼ Think of the proposal as an introduction to your thesis or dissertation. ◼ Remember that the proposal is not a binding contract. ◼ Remember that your proposal is not meant to limit ideas, but to help you think practically. ◼ Ask colleagues to form a writing group. ◼ Talk to your advisor! 3 4 , Is My Topic Feasible? You may start with a rather vague idea of a research topic. It is then necessary to assess how the topic can be narrowed down to potential sub- topics for more thorough consideration. The following checklist contains one set of general questions, and five sets of specific questions for specific types of topics. It is recommended that you read all the questions in all sub- sections because the questions may trigger ideas that you have not considered previously. Also, you will not be able to answer all the questions at this stage. Rather, use them to guide your thinking. (a) Questions about the topic in general 1. Is there current interest in this topic in your field or in a closely related field? 2. Is there a gap in knowledge that work on this topic could help to fill or a controversy that it might help to resolve? 3 “Writing a Thesis Proposal: Independent Learning Resources.” Learning Centre, University of Sydney. 2000. Accessed October 17, 2016. http://sydney.edu.au/stuserv/documents/thesisproposal.pdf 4 Mauch, J.E. and Birch, J.W. Guide to the Successful Thesis and Dissertation. 2nd ed. New York: Marcel Dekker, 1989: 47-49. 4  3. Is it possible to focus on a small enough segment of the topic to make a manageable thesis project? 4. Can you envisage a way to study the topic that will allow conclusions to be drawn with substantial objectivity. Is the data collection approach (i.e. test, questionnaire, interview) acceptable in your school? 5. Is there a body of literature available relevant to the topic? Is a search manageable? 6. Are there large problems (i.e. logistic, attitudinal) to be surmounted in working in this topic? Do you have the means to handle them? 7. Does the topic relate reasonably well to others done in your department? If not, do you have any information about its acceptability? 8. Would financial assistance be required? If yes, is it available? 9. Are the needed data easily accessible? Will you have control of the data? 10. Do you have a clear statement of the purpose, scope, objectives, procedures, and limitations of the study? Do you have a tentative table of contents? Are any of the skills called on by the study skills that you have yet to acquire? (b) Questions for topics employing a research question or hypothesis: 1. Do you have acceptable statements of research questions or hypotheses? 2. Can you specify how you will answer the questions or test the hypotheses? 3. Would the thesis be a contribution if the findings do not support the hypotheses or fail to answer the questions? 4. Have subsidiary questions or hypotheses been identified that deserve study along with the major ones? 5. Are there alternative questions or hypotheses that might explain the findings anticipated? (c) Questions for topics requiring interviews for data collection 1. What style or type of interview is best suited to the objectives of the study? 2. Does an interview protocol exist that fits the purposes of the investigation? Has it been pilot tested? 5  3. How will the data be recorded and collated for optimum speed, accuracy, and reliability? 4. How will matters of confidentiality and permission be handled? 5. How will bias in the interviewer and the respondent be minimized or measured? (d) Questions for topics using a questionnaire approach 1. What form of questionnaire will be most productive for this kind of study? Has it been tested? 2. How will questionnaire items be related specifically to the purpose of the investigation? 3. Why is the questionnaire the tool of choice for data collection? 4. How will it be assured that the questionnaire will be answered? 5. How will the questionnaire responses be validated? Analyzed? (e) Questions for topics involving mathematical analysis of data 1. What quantitative analyses are planned? What will they produce? 2. Are the quantitative analyses appropriate to the kinds of data collected? 3. What level of confidence will be accepted as significant? Why? 4. Are there computer programs that will save time, energy, and money? Are they available? 5. What rational and subjective interpretation will be needed to be given to the statistical findings to make them meaningful? (f) Questions for topics making use of existing data from other sources 1. Are the data relevant? Reliable? Valid? Complete? 2. Are there limitations on the present or future availability or utilisation of the data? 3. Why is it better to use these data than to collect one's own afresh? 4. What additional data need to be collected? What and why? 5. What obligations to the other sources go along with publication based on these data? (g) Questions for topics involving tests and testing in data gathering 1. Are the tests the most valid and reliable obtainable? 2. Do the tests discriminate against significant groups in the sample? 6  3. Do the tests provide direct measures of the key variables in the study? 4. How will confidentiality be preserved? 5. What interpretations will be needed to make the test results meaningful in relation of the purpose of the investigation? Exercise: Think about the following: (1) Which of these questions and issues are relevant to your research? (2) What further questions and issues do you think may be relevant for your research? (3) Can you think of any preliminary answers how you might deal with these questions? Parts of a Proposal ◼ Title ◼ Abstract ◼ Introduction/Background ◼ Problem Statement ◼ Purpose/Aims/Rationale/Research Questions ◼ Review of Literature ◼ Methodology ◼ Significance/ Implications ◼ Overview of Chapters ◼ Plan of Work ◼ Bibliography Creating a Working Title ◼ The Title is the label of your submission; most-read element ◼ Should be brief: as few words as possible and informative: describe contents accurately ◼ describe subject specifically 7  ◼ Easy to understand ◼ Suitable for indexing ◼ → Include key words for indexing ◼ → Make most important words stand out (order!) ◼ Do not promise more than what is in the proposal ◼ Cut unnecessary words (e.g. “some notes on ….”) ◼ Avoid abbreviations and jargon Title should address ◼ What? ◼ Why/Objective? ◼ Where? In selecting words for a Title be as general as permissible and as specific as necessary Creating a Working Title ◼ Orient your readers to your research topic. ◼ Indicate the type of study you will conduct. Examples: ◼ Role of the Hydrologic Cycle in Vegetation Response to Climate Change: An Analysis Using VEMAP Phase 2 Model Experiments ◼ Geographic Representations of the Planet Mars, 1867-1907 Note: For further samples of theses’ titles, visit Columbia University @ http://www.qmss.columbia.edu/thesis-titles 8 Benha University Faculty of Arts Dept. of English Language and Literature Twentieth Century Afro-Americans in the Works of Langston Hughes "A Historical and Critical Approach" An M.A. Thesis Submitted by: Wafaa Muhammad El- Deftar Demonstrator at the Department of English, Faculty of Arts, Benha University. Under the Supervision of: Prof. M.M. Enani Prof. of English Language and Literature, Faculty of Arts, Cairo University. Dr. Eman El-Adawy Lecturer in English Language and Literature, Faculty of Arts, Benha University. Benha University 2007 9  ‫جامعة بنها‬ ‫كلية اآلداب‬ ‫قسم اللغة اإلنجليزية وآدابها‬ ‫أوضاع األفارقة األمريكيين في القرن العشرين‬ ‫في أعمال النجستون هيوز‬ ‫" دراسة تاريخية نقدية "‬ ‫رسالة لنيل درجة الماجيستير‬ ‫تقدمها‬ ‫وفاء محمد أنور الدفتار‬ ‫معيدة بقسم اللغة اإلنجليزية وآدابها بكلية اآلداب‬ ‫جامعة بنها‬ ‫تحت إشراف‬ ‫د‪.‬إيمان العدوى‬ ‫أ‪.‬د‪.‬محمد محمد عنانى‬ ‫مدرس اللغة اإلنجليزية وآدابها‬ ‫أستاذ اللغة اإلنجليزية وآدابها‬ ‫كلية اآلداب جامعة بنها‬ ‫كلية اآلداب جامعة القاهرة‬ ‫جامعة بنها‬ ‫‪2007‬م‬ ‫‪10‬‬  Abstract Should be short (150-250 words)/ Or as is required from a paper or journal. Should contain key words for indexing Should stand on its own No references, No abbreviation, No citation of tables or figures, No unsubstantiated conclusions Should have the following sections – Introduction/Background (the problems and its significance) – Objectives – Materials & Methodology (approach to finding a solution) – Expected output – Conclusions Make a great first impression. Most applications require a brief abstract or summary of the project. It is generally a good idea to write the abstract or summary last, when you can review the full proposal project description and pull out the most significant and winning arguments. Think of it as the introduction to your project, which offers reviewers their first impression of you and your proposed work. Your goal is to gain their attention and guarantee that they will read the full proposal with interest, and even enthusiasm. *5,6 WHAT IS AN ABSTRACT? An abstract is a self-contained, short, and powerful statement that describes a larger work. Components vary according to discipline. An abstract of a social science or scientific work may contain the scope, purpose, results, and contents of the work. An abstract of a humanities work may contain 5 The Writing Centre. “Abstracts.” The Writing Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. (nd.) Web. 1st August 2017. http://writingcenter.unc.edu/tips-and-tools/abstracts/ 6 Lancaster, F.W. Indexing and Abstracting in Theory and Practice, 3rd edition. London: Facet, 2003. 11 the thesis, background, and conclusion of the larger work. An abstract is not a review, nor does it evaluate the work being abstracted. While it contains key words found in the larger work, the abstract is an original document rather than an excerpted passage. Why Write an Abstract? You may write an abstract for various reasons. The two most important are selection and indexing. Abstracts allow readers who may be interested in a longer work to quickly decide whether it is worth their time to read it. Also, many online databases use abstracts to index larger works. Therefore, abstracts should contain keywords and phrases that allow for easy searching. Selection Say you are beginning a research project on how Brazilian newspapers helped Brazil’s ultra-liberal president Luiz Ignácio da Silva wrest power from the traditional, conservative power base. A good first place to start your research is to search Dissertation Abstracts International for all dissertations that deal with the interaction between newspapers and politics. “Newspapers and politics” returned 569 hits. A more selective search of “newspapers and Brazil” returned 22 hits. That is still a fair number of dissertations. Titles can sometimes help winnow the field, but many titles are not very descriptive. For example, one dissertation is titled “Rhetoric and Riot in Rio de Janeiro.” It is unclear from the title what this dissertation has to do with newspapers in Brazil. One option would be to download or order the entire dissertation on the chance that it might speak specifically to the topic. A better option is to read the abstract. In this case, the abstract reveals the main focus of the dissertation: This dissertation examines the role of newspaper editors in the political turmoil and strife that characterized late First Empire Rio de Janeiro (1827-1831). Newspaper editors and their journals helped change the political culture of late First Empire Rio de Janeiro by involving the people in the discussion of state. This change in political culture is apparent in Emperor Pedro I’s gradual loss of control over the mechanisms of power. As the newspapers became more numerous and powerful, the Emperor lost his legitimacy in the eyes of the people. To explore the role of the newspapers in the political events of the late First Empire, this dissertation analyzes all available newspapers published in Rio de Janeiro from 1827 to 1831. Newspapers and their editors were leading forces in the effort to remove power from the hands of the ruling 12  elite and place it under the control of the people. In the process, newspapers helped change how politics operated in the constitutional monarchy of Brazil. From this abstract you now know that although the dissertation has nothing to do with modern Brazilian politics, it does cover the role of newspapers in changing traditional mechanisms of power. After reading the abstract, you can make an informed judgment about whether the dissertation would be worthwhile to read. Indexing Besides selection, the other main purpose of the abstract is for indexing. Most article databases in the online catalog of the library enable you to search abstracts. This allows for quick retrieval by users and limits the extraneous items recalled by a “full-text” search. However, for an abstract to be useful in an online retrieval system, it must incorporate the key terms that a potential researcher would use to search. For example, if you search Dissertation Abstracts International using the keywords “France” “revolution” and “politics,” the search engine would search through all the abstracts in the database that included those three words. Without an abstract, the search engine would be forced to search titles, which, as we have seen, may not be fruitful, or else search the full text. It’s likely that a lot more than 60 dissertations have been written with those three words somewhere in the body of the entire work. By incorporating keywords into the abstract, the author emphasizes the central topics of the work and gives prospective readers enough information to make an informed judgment about the applicability of the work. When Do People Write Abstracts? when submitting articles to journals, especially online journals when applying for research grants when writing a book proposal when completing the Ph.D. dissertation or M.A. thesis when writing a proposal for a conference paper when writing a proposal for a book chapter Most often, the author of the entire work (or prospective work) writes the abstract. However, there are professional abstracting services that hire writers to draft abstracts of other people’s work. In a work with multiple authors, the first author usually writes the abstract. Undergraduates are 13 sometimes asked to draft abstracts of books/articles for classmates who have not read the larger work. Types of Abstracts There are two types of abstracts: descriptive and informative. They have different aims, so as a consequence they have different components and styles. There is also a third type called critical, but it is rarely used. If you want to find out more about writing a critique or a review of a work, see the UNC Writing Center handout on writing a literature review. If you are unsure which type of abstract you should write, ask your instructor (if the abstract is for a class) or read other abstracts in your field or in the journal where you are submitting your article. Descriptive Abstracts A descriptive abstract indicates the type of information found in the work. It makes no judgments about the work, nor does it provide results or conclusions of the research. It does incorporate key words found in the text and may include the purpose, methods, and scope of the research. Essentially, the descriptive abstract describes the work being abstracted. Some people consider it an outline of the work, rather than a summary. Descriptive abstracts are usually very short—100 words or less. Informative Abstracts The majority of abstracts are informative. While they still do not critique or evaluate a work, they do more than describe it. A good informative abstract acts as a surrogate for the work itself. That is, the writer presents and explains all the main arguments and the important results and evidence in the complete article/paper/book. An informative abstract includes the information that can be found in a descriptive abstract (purpose, methods, scope) but also includes the results and conclusions of the research and the recommendations of the author. The length varies according to discipline, but an informative abstract is rarely more than 10% of the length of the entire work. In the case of a longer work, it may be much less. Here are examples of a descriptive and an informative abstract of this handout: “Abstracts,” UNC-CH Writing Center, Handout 14 Abstracts present the essential elements of a longer work in a short and powerful statement. The purpose of an abstract is to provide prospective readers the opportunity to judge the relevance of the longer work to their projects. Abstracts also include the key terms found in the longer work and the purpose and methods of the research. Authors abstract various longer works, including book proposals, dissertations, and online journal articles. There are two main types of abstracts: descriptive and informative. A descriptive abstract briefly describes the longer work, while an informative abstract presents all the main arguments and important results. This handout provides examples of various types of abstracts and instructions on how to construct one. Which Type Should I Use? Your best bet in this case is to ask your instructor or refer to the instructions provided by the publisher. You can also make a guess based on the length allowed; i.e., 100-120 words = descriptive; 250+ words = informative. How Do I Write an Abstract? The format of your abstract will depend on the work being abstracted. An abstract of a scientific research paper will contain elements not found in an abstract of a literature article, and vice versa. However, all abstracts share several mandatory components, and there are also some optional parts that you can decide to include or not. When preparing to draft your abstract, keep the following key process elements in mind: Reason for writing: What is the importance of the research? Why would a reader be interested in the larger work? Problem: What problem does this work attempt to solve? What is the scope of the project? What is the main argument/thesis/ claim? Methodology: An abstract of a scientific work may include specific models or approaches used in the larger study. Other abstracts may describe the types of evidence used in the research. Results: Again, an abstract of a scientific work may include specific data that 15  indicates the results of the project. Other abstracts may discuss the findings in a more general way. Implications: What changes should be implemented as a result of the findings of the work? How does this work add to the body of knowledge on the topic? (This list of elements is adapted with permission from Philip Koopman, “How to Write an Abstract.”) All Abstracts Include: A full citation of the source, preceding the abstract. The most important information first. The same type and style of language found in the original, including technical language. Key words and phrases that quickly identify the content and focus of the work. Clear, concise, and powerful language. Abstracts May Include: The thesis of the work, usually in the first sentence. Background information that places the work in the larger body of literature. The same chronological structure as the original work. How Not To Write an Abstract: Do not refer extensively to other works. Do not add information not contained in the original work. Do not define terms. If You Are Abstracting Your Own Writing: When abstracting your own work, it may be difficult to condense a piece of writing that you have agonized over for weeks (or months, or even years) into a 250-word statement. There are some tricks that you could use to make it easier, however. Reverse outlining: 16 This technique is commonly used when you are having trouble organizing your own writing. The process involves writing down the main idea of each paragraph on a separate piece of paper–see our short video. For the purposes of writing an abstract, try grouping the main ideas of each section of the paper into a single sentence. Practice grouping ideas using webbing or color coding. For a scientific paper, you may have sections titled Purpose, Methods, Results, and Discussion. Each one of these sections will be longer than one paragraph, but each is grouped around a central idea. Use reverse outlining to discover the central idea in each section and then distill these ideas into one statement. Cut and paste: To create a first draft of an abstract of your own work, you can read through the entire paper and cut and paste sentences that capture key passages. This technique is useful for social science research with findings that cannot be encapsulated by neat numbers or concrete results. A well-written humanities draft will have a clear and direct thesis statement and informative topic sentences for paragraphs or sections. Isolate these sentences in a separate document and work on revising them into a unified paragraph. If You Are Abstracting Someone Else’s Writing: When abstracting something you have not written, you cannot summarize key ideas just by cutting and pasting. Instead, you must determine what a prospective reader would want to know about the work. There are a few techniques that will help you in this process: Identify key terms: Search through the entire document for key terms that identify the purpose, scope, and methods of the work. Pay close attention to the Introduction (or Purpose) and the Conclusion (or Discussion). These sections should contain all the main ideas and key terms in the paper. When writing the abstract, be sure to incorporate the key terms. Highlight key phrases and sentences: 17 Instead of cutting and pasting the actual words, try highlighting sentences or phrases that appear to be central to the work. Then, in a separate document, rewrite the sentences and phrases in your own words. Don’t look back: After reading the entire work, put it aside and write a paragraph about the work without referring to it. In the first draft, you may not remember all the key terms or the results, but you will remember what the main point of the work was. Remember not to include any information you did not get from the work being abstracted. Revise, Revise, Revise No matter what type of abstract you are writing, or whether you are abstracting your own work or someone else’s, the most important step in writing an abstract is to revise early and often. When revising, delete all extraneous words and incorporate meaningful and powerful words. The idea is to be as clear and complete as possible in the shortest possible amount of space. The Word Count feature of Microsoft Word can help you keep track of how long your abstract is and help you hit your target length. Example 1: Humanities Abstract Kenneth Tait Andrews, “‘Freedom is a constant struggle’: The dynamics and consequences of the Mississippi Civil Rights Movement, 1960-1984” Ph.D. State University of New York at Stony Brook, 1997 DAI-A 59/02, p. 620, Aug 1998 This dissertation examines the impacts of social movements through a multi-layered study of the Mississippi Civil Rights Movement from its peak in the early 1960s through the early 1980s. By examining this historically important case, I clarify the process by which movements transform social structures and the constraints movements face when they try to do so. The time period studied includes the expansion of voting rights and gains in black political power, the desegregation of public schools and the emergence of white-flight academies, and the rise and fall of federal anti- poverty programs. I use two major research strategies: (1) a quantitative analysis of county-level data and (2) three case studies. Data have been collected from archives, interviews, newspapers, and published reports. This dissertation challenges the argument that movements are inconsequential. Some view federal agencies, courts, political parties, or economic elites as the agents driving institutional change, but typically these groups acted in response to the leverage brought to bear by the civil rights movement. The Mississippi movement attempted to forge independent structures for sustaining challenges to local inequities and injustices. By propelling change in an array of local institutions, movement infrastructures had an enduring legacy in Mississippi. 18 Now let’s break down this abstract into its component parts to see how the author has distilled his entire dissertation into a ~200 word abstract. What the Dissertation Does This dissertation examines the impacts of social movements through a multi-layered study of the Mississippi Civil Rights Movement from its peak in the early 1960s through the early 1980s. By examining this historically important case, I clarify the process by which movements transform social structures and the constraints movements face when they try to do so. How the Dissertation Does It The time period studied in this dissertation includes the expansion of voting rights and gains in black political power, the desegregation of public schools and the emergence of white-flight academies, and the rise and fall of federal anti-poverty programs. I use two major research strategies: (1) a quantitative analysis of county-level data and (2) three case studies. What Materials Are Used Data have been collected from archives, interviews, newspapers, and published reports. Conclusion This dissertation challenges the argument that movements are inconsequential. Some view federal agencies, courts, political parties, or economic elites as the agents driving institutional change, but typically these groups acted in response to movement demands and the leverage brought to bear by the civil rights movement. The Mississippi movement attempted to forge independent structures for sustaining challenges to local inequities and injustices. By propelling change in an array of local institutions, movement infrastructures had an enduring legacy in Mississippi. Keywords social movements Civil Rights Movement Mississippi 19 voting rights desegregation Example 2: Science Abstract Luis Lehner, “Gravitational radiation from black hole spacetimes” Ph.D. University of Pittsburgh, 1998 DAI-B 59/06, p. 2797, Dec 1998 The problem of detecting gravitational radiation is receiving considerable attention with the construction of new detectors in the United States, Europe, and Japan. The theoretical modeling of the wave forms that would be produced in particular systems will expedite the search for and analysis of detected signals. The characteristic formulation of GR is implemented to obtain an algorithm capable of evolving black holes in 3D asymptotically flat spacetimes. Using compactification techniques, future null infinity is included in the evolved region, which enables the unambiguous calculation of the radiation produced by some compact source. A module to calculate the waveforms is constructed and included in the evolution algorithm. This code is shown to be second-order convergent and to handle highly non-linear spacetimes. In particular, we have shown that the code can handle spacetimes whose radiation is equivalent to a galaxy converting its whole mass into gravitational radiation in one second. We further use the characteristic formulation to treat the region close to the singularity in black hole spacetimes. The code carefully excises a region surrounding the singularity and accurately evolves generic black hole spacetimes with apparently unlimited stability. This science abstract covers much of the same ground as the humanities one, but it asks slightly different questions. Why Do This Study The problem of detecting gravitational radiation is receiving considerable attention with the construction of new detectors in the United States, Europe, and Japan. The theoretical modeling of the wave forms that would be produced in particular systems will expedite the search and analysis of the detected signals. What the Study Does The characteristic formulation of GR is implemented to obtain an algorithm capable of evolving black holes in 3D asymptotically flat spacetimes. Using compactification techniques, future null infinity is included in the evolved region, which enables the unambiguous calculation of the radiation produced by some compact source. A module to calculate the waveforms is constructed and included in the evolution algorithm. 20 Results This code is shown to be second-order convergent and to handle highly non-linear spacetimes. In particular, we have shown that the code can handle spacetimes whose radiation is equivalent to a galaxy converting its whole mass into gravitational radiation in one second. We further use the characteristic formulation to treat the region close to the singularity in black hole spacetimes. The code carefully excises a region surrounding the singularity and accurately evolves generic black hole spacetimes with apparently unlimited stability. Keywords gravitational radiation (GR) spacetimes black holes Note: For further reading and extra examples and exercises visit: Dr. Morillo’s “The Abstract as a Genre: The Good, the Bad, and the UglyENG669” http://www4.ncsu.edu/unity/users/m/morillo/public/abstractex.htm 21  Samples of Abstracts7 1- Humanities Abstracts Sophia Estante and Lorrie Moore (Mentor), English “Margaret C. Anderson’s Little Review” This research looks at the work of Margaret C. Anderson, the editor of the Little Review. The review published first works by Sherwood Anderson, James Joyce, Wyndham Lewis, and Ezra Pound. This research draws upon mostly primary sources including memoirs, published letters, and a complete collection of the Little Review. Most prior research on Anderson focuses on her connection to the famous writers and personalities that she published and associated with. This focus undermines her role as the dominant creative force behind one of the most influential little magazines published in the 20th Century. This case example shows how little magazine publishing is arguably a literary art. Benjamin Herman and Jean Lee (Mentor), History "The Commemoration and Memorialization of the American Revolution” This project involves discovering how the American Revolution was remembered during the nineteenth century. The goal is to show that the American Revolution was memorialized by the actions of the United States government during the 1800s. This has been done by examining events such as the Supreme Court cases of John Marshall and the Nullification Crisis. Upon examination of these events, it becomes clear that John Marshall and John Calhoun (creator of the Doctrine of Nullification) attempted to use the American Revolution to bolster their claims by citing speeches from Founding Fathers. Through showing that the American Revolution lives on in memory, this research highlights the importance of the revolution in shaping the actions of the United States government. 2- Social Science Abstracts Lauren Silberman and Elisabeth Hayes (Mentor), Curriculum & Instruction “The Tony Hawk Learning Project” The study is to show how even a “sport” video game can incorporate many types of learning, to call attention to what might be overlooked as significant forms of learning, and to understand and take advantage of the opportunities video games afford as more deliberate learning environments. The aspects explored are the skills and techniques required to be successful in the game, the environment that skaters skate in, the personal 7 The writing Center, University of Wisconsin, Madison @ https://writing.wisc.edu/Handbook/presentations_abstracts_examples.html 22 vs. group identity that is shown through the general appearance of the skater, and the values and icons that the game teaches players. We are finding that sport video games support learning; we hope to find how one learns about oneself as a learner from playing. 3- Hard Science Abstracts Sean Spenser and John Loffredo, David Watkins (Mentors), Primate Research Center “Understanding Cell-Mediated Immune Responses Against Simian Immunodeficiency Virus (SIV)" Each day 14,000 people become infected with HIV/AIDS, making the development of an effective vaccine one of the world’s top public health priorities. David Watkins’ laboratory is attempting to develop HIV vaccines that elicit cellular immune responses utilizing the simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) – infected rhesus macaque animal model. A major component of the cell-mediated immune response are cytotoxic T- lymphocytes (CTL). It is thought that CTL play an important role in controlling HIV and SIV. Most standard immunological assays do not measure antiviral activity directly, limiting our understanding of CTL effectiveness. To address this, the Watkins laboratory developed a novel neutralization assay that quantifies the ability of virus- specific CTL populations to control viral growth. Evaluating the antiviral activity of CTL of different specificities will identify those CTL most effective against SIV. This information will likely impact the design of future HIV vaccines. 4- Service Project Abstracts Angela Cunningham and Sherrill Sellers (Mentor), Social Work “Fostering H.O.P.E.: Helping Overcome Poverty through Education for Teen Moms” This program was designed to address the prevalent issues of teen parenthood and poverty. The idea was to introduce and reinforce the importance of obtaining a post- secondary education to teen mothers in their junior or senior year of high school. The program ran for eight weeks during the summer of 2003. Participants met once a week to participate in group building activities, get insights to what it will take to finish school, and receive information on services that are available to help them along the way. The young women also had the opportunity to tour the UW and MATC campuses. The participants walked away from the program with a sense of hope that they are able to pursue their dreams despite their difficult situations. 23  5- Visual and Performing Arts Abstracts Diana Dewi, Jennifer Kittleson, and Wendy Hagedorn (Mentor), Apparel and Textile Design “Blind Construction: Mixed Media” The basis of this project was to create a garment using mixed media in order to mimic the human body. The materials we used to create this piece include: buckram, copper wire, spray paint, fabric paint, a variety of novelty fabrics, and chains. The techniques we created in order to manipulate the piece include: fabric branding and burning, grid painting, sewing, draping, molding buckram, and coiling. Our overall approach was to create a theatrical wearable art piece. Upon completion of the assignment we found the piece aesthetically pleasing because of the way it molds to the human body, but can be a piece all on its own. 6- Other instances: George Micajah Phillips, 2011 “Seeing Subjects: Recognition, Identity, and Visual Cultures in Literary Modernism” Abstract: “Seeing Subjects plots a literary history of modern Britain that begins with Dorian Gray obsessively inspecting his portrait’s changes and ends in Virginia Woolf’s visit to the cinema where she found audiences to be “savages watching the pictures.” Focusing on how literature in the late-19th and 20th centuries regarded images as possessing a shaping force over how identities are understood and performed, I argue that modernists in Britain felt mediated images were altering, rather than merely representing, British identity. As Britain’s economy expanded to unprecedented imperial reach and global influence, new visual technologies also made it possible to render images culled from across the British world—from its furthest colonies to darkest London—to the small island nation, deeply and irrevocably complicating British identity. In response, Oscar Wilde, Joseph Conrad, T. S. Eliot, and others sought to better understand how identity was recognized, particularly visually. By exploring how painting, photography, colonial exhibitions, and cinema sought to manage visual representations of identity, these modernists found that recognition began by acknowledging the familiar but also went further to acknowledge what was strange and new as well. Reading recognition and misrecognition as crucial features of modernist texts, Seeing Subjects argues for a new understanding of how modernism’s formal experimentation came to be and for how it calls for responses from readers today.” Aparajita Sengupta, 2011 24 “Nation, Fantasy, and Mimicry: Elements of Political Resistance in Postcolonial Indian Cinema” Abstract: “In spite of the substantial amount of critical work that has been produced on Indian cinema in the last decade, misconceptions about Indian cinema still abound. Indian cinema is a subject about which conceptions are still muddy, even within prominent academic circles. The majority of the recent critical work on the subject endeavors to correct misconceptions, analyze cinematic norms and lay down the theoretical foundations for Indian cinema. This dissertation conducts a study of the cinema from India with a view to examine the extent to which such cinema represents an anti- colonial vision. The political resistance of Indian films to colonial and neo-colonial norms, and their capacity to formulate a national identity is the primary focus of the current study.” * Note: For further samples of abstracts, visit College of Arts and Sciences @ https://english.as.uky.edu/dissertation-abstracts Exercise: Try and draft an abstract to your research. 25 Introduction/Background Bearing in your mind that the first impression is the last impression, you need to present your introduction as clear as possible—leaving no ambiguities. This is the entrance of your paper through which your reader will travel a journey of reading. If your introduction is attractive, your reader will delve into your words till the last full stop is reached. The introduction discusses the meaningfulness of the study with presentation of problem or issue as well as the argument advocating the need of study for researcher’s chosen object. The statement of the issue gives a clear-cut insight into the intentions of the researcher. Thus the introduction presents a background and statement in context to the relevant issue. It may be easier to think of this section as a review of Relevant Literature. Cite previous projects and studies that are similar to what you are proposing. Show the funding agency that you know what you are proposing because you are familiar with what has preceded you. Position your project in relation to other efforts and show how your project: – will extend the work that has been previously done, – will avoid the mistakes and/or errors that have been previously made, – will serve to develop stronger collaboration between existing initiatives, or – is unique since it does not follow the same path as previously followed. In the introduction you should: – define or identify the general topic, issue or area of concern – point out overall trends in what has already been published – Present the case for the new study with a sentence like “In this study……….” Essentials – Wide reading of subject area – Relevant current literature – Electronic resources available 26 In brief, in an introduction you should: ◼ Establish the general territory (real world or research). ◼ Describe the broad foundations of your study—provide sufficient background for readers. ◼ Indicate the general scope of your project. ◼ Provide an overview of the sections that will appear in your proposal (optional). ◼ Engage the readers. 8 INTRODUCTIONS AND THESIS STATEMENTS Introductions Purpose Not only does the introduction contain your thesis statement, but it provides the initial impression of your argument, your writing style, and the overall quality of your work. A clear, concise, well-organized, and engaging introduction will help to efficiently set-up your paper. The introduction must captivate your audience’s attention and interest. Otherwise, the audience may not be convinced to continue reading. Think about a text that you have read or even a movie that you have seen whose beginning lost your interest. You probably put down the book or changed the channel. Your introduction also serves as a preview for the remainder of your paper, conveying necessary background information to your readers, identifying your topic and its significance, and unveiling how you will organize your essay. An effective introduction also establishes your voice as a writer and your point of view towards your topic. For a thesis-driven paper, provide an overview of your basic argument and why you will attempt to convince your reader of your stance on a particular issue. If your paper deviates from the general outline suggested in the introduction, then consider reworking the introduction 8 BBC Tutering Center. Bucks County Community College. “Thesis Statements and Introductions”. July 8th 2000. Web. 3rd September 2017. http://www.bucks.edu/media/bcccmedialibrary/pdf/ThesisStatementsandIntroductionsJuly08_0 00.pdf. 27 (http://www.english.ucla.edu/TA/hyperteach/PDFs/good_intro.pdf). 9 10 , The form and content of an introduction depend upon many factors, including the specifics of the assignment, the intended audience, the style of the discipline, and the expectations of your professor. In general, your introduction should: capture the reader’s attention reflect the question raised by the assignment provide essential context for your topic define key terms Most importantly, your introduction should: convey the pattern of organization you will follow in the paper build to the thesis sentence: a clear, concise statement of the specific position you will explore in your paper. Outline first Outline your argument as fully as possible before starting the first draft. Outlining first helps you to see the shape of your argument, making writing the draft much easier. Start focused Avoid broad openers; start your argument right away. Do not open with empty filler such as “Since the beginning of time” or “For thousands of years, men, both good and evil.” Open with a sentence that launches your argument: “J. M. Coetzee’s Waiting for the Barbarians explores the latent meanings of deformity.” Use substantive statements Each sentence should contribute to the development of your argument. Avoid fact-only sentences such as “Jane Austen uses letters to reveal important information.” Incorporate facts into more substantive 9 Williams, Joseph M. and Gregory G. Colomb. The Craft of Argument, Concise Edition. New York: Longman Publishers, 2003. 10 Nesbitt-Johnston. Writing Center Hamilton College. “Introductions and Thesis Statements”. https://www.hamilton.edu/documents/writing-center/Intros.PDF 28 statements: “Austen’s use of letters allows her to relay key narrative information in a concise and engaging way.” Revise Many writers mistakenly assume the first draft of their introduction is the final draft; take the time to revise your introduction once you’ve completed the paper. Make sure that the introduction reflects what you have discovered through the process of composing the full argument. 11 Content The introduction must include the following: Necessary background information* Brief explanation of any terms unfamiliar to your audience Identification of the novel, short story, play, poem, etc. (literary analysis paper, research paper on a literary subject) O Always provide the title and author of a text in the introduction of a literary analysis paper. Identification of primary characters, if applicable (literary analysis paper, research paper on a literary subject) Thesis statement (except for a narrative) *If there is considerable background information, it is acceptable to include a paragraph immediately following the introduction that includes this information. The content, style, and organization of your introduction will shift depending on your essay’s genre. Research paper, argumentative paper—background on your topic/context; thesis statement; overview of your paper’s organization Literary analysis paper—author, title of work(s) you will discuss, thesis statement; any relevant background information; overview of your paper’s organization 11 BBC Tutering Center. Bucks County Community College. “Thesis Statements and Introductions”. July 8th 2000. Web. 3rd September 2017. http://www.bucks.edu/media/bcccmedialibrary/pdf/ThesisStatementsandIntroductionsJuly08_0 00.pdf. 29  Narrative—setting (time and place); narrative hook; emphasis on voice; no thesis statement Organization An introduction’s logical organization can be compared to the image of a funnel. That is, the introduction usually begins with a general overview of your topic and then becomes more specific, narrowing to the thesis statement. Typically, the thesis statement is the last sentence in the introduction. It may, however, come near the end of the introduction. The thesis statement may also be more than one sentence, particularly in longer papers. Avoid these pitfalls when composing an introduction: Dictionary definitions: While you should explain any terms that your audience needs to know to understand your paper’s content, avoid beginning a paper with a dictionary definition such as the following: “Webster’s Dictionary defines “joy” as “great pleasure or happiness.” This approach to an introduction is cliché. Overuse of facts without rendering an opinion or any analysis: Implementing too many facts will produce a dry, lifeless introduction and will overshadow your own voice as a writer. Repetition of similar ideas: Your audience will notice that you are not saying anything new or fresh. Types of Introductions: Analogy Make a comparison that will catch your reader’s attention and introduce your topic. Imagine that the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) is presented with a series of studies testing the effectiveness of a new drug. There are some laboratory tests that produce fairly consistent positive effects, but the drug does not always work as expected and no attempt has been made to discover why. Most of the clinical tests are negative; there are also a few weak positive results and a few results suggesting that the drug is less effective than a placebo. Obviously the FDA would reject this application, yet the widely accepted evidence that watching television violence causes aggression is no more adequate. Jonathan L. Freedman, “Violence in the Mass Media and Violence in Society: The Link is Unproven,” excerpt from The Aims of Argument” 30 Allusion Make a reference to another literary work, person, or event. Four decades ago Betty Friedan, in her groundbreaking book, The Feminine Mystique, wrote about women who suffer “a problem that had no name.” They were sick and tired of being sick and tired of having no identity to call their own: The problem is always being the children’s mommy, or the minister’s wife, and never being myself. One woman described her situation as living in a “comfortable concentration camp.” There’s a new problem without a name now and it’s a mare of another color. Women are complaining about work and writing about it. Elizabeth Perle McKenna left a high-powered position in publishing to search for the neglected parts of her life. In writing When Work Doesn’t Work Anymore, she found lots of baby boomers like herself who had bought into what they call the New Oppression – hard earned success. The symptoms include burnout, boredom and lack of balance. Suzanne Fields, “Mission No Longer Impossible—Or Is It?” -Excerpt from The Aims of Argument” Anecdote (or Narration) Start with a brief story that is closely related to your topic. I was out to drinks with a man I’d recently met. “I’ll take care of that,” he said, sweeping up the check, and as he said it, I felt a warm glow of security, as if everything in my life was suddenly going to be taken care of. As the pink cosmopolitans glided smoothly across the bar, I thought for a moment of how nice it would be to live in an era when men always took care of the cosmopolitans. I pictured a lawyer with a creamy leather briefcase going off to work in the mornings and coming back home in the evenings to the townhouse he has bought for me, where I have been ordering flowers, soaking in the bath, reading a nineteenth-century novel, and working idly on my next book. This fantasy of Man in a Gray Flannel Suit is one that independent, strongminded women of the nineties are distinctly not supposed to have, but I find myself having it all the same. And many of the women I know are having it also. Katie Roiphe, “The Independent Woman (and Other Lies),” excerpt from Esquire Description Write a detailed description to illustrate a specific point about your topic. To the causal eye, Green Valley, Nevada, a corporate master-planned community just south of Las Vegas, would appear to be a pleasant place to live. On a Sunday last April—a week before the riots in Los Angeles and related disturbances in Las Vegas—the golf carts were lined up three abreast at the up- scale ―Legacy‖ course; people in golf outfits on the clubhouse veranda were 31  eating three-cheese omelets and strawberry waffles and looking out over the palm trees and fairways, talking business and reading Sunday newspapers. In nearby Parkside Village, one of Green Valley’s thirty-five developments, a few homeowners washed cars or boats or pulled up weeds in the sun. Cars wound slowly over clean broad streets, ferrying children to swimming pools and backyard barbeques and Cineplex matinees. At the Silver Springs tennis courts, a well-tanned teenage boy in tennis togs pummeled his sweating father. Two twelve-year-old daredevils on expensive mountain bikes, decked out in Chicago Bulls caps and matching tank tops, watched and ate chocolate candies. David Guterson, “No Place Like Home: On the Manicured Streets of a Master-Planned Community,” excerpt from Seeing and Writing 3 Definition Provide an explanation, not a dictionary definition, of a term that your paper will cover. The word “addiction” is often used loosely and wryly in conversation. People will refer to themselves as “mystery book addicts” or “cookie addicts.” E.B. White wrote of his annual surge of interest in gardening: “We are hooked and are making an attempt to the kick the habit.” Yet nobody really believes that reading mysteries or ordering seeds by catalogue is serious enough to be compared with addiction to heroin or alcohol. The word “addiction” is here used jokingly to denote a tendency to overindulge in some pleasurable activity. Marie Winn, “TV Addiction: Cookies or Heroin?,” excerpt from The Macmillan Reader Example Begin with an example of your topic. When Andy Rooney got in trouble last month, gay activists complained he was being publicly rebuked for his allegedly racist remarks and not for his gay bashing. They wanted to know why homophobia was viewed as less serious than racism. The case of Martin Luther King III last week brought the comparison into even sharper relief. After a speech in Poughkeepsie, NY, in which he said “something must be wrong” with homosexuals, the young Atlanta politician met with angry gay leaders and quickly apologized. His father’s legacy, King said, was “the struggle to free this country of bigotry and discrimination.” In that light, he added, he needed to examine his own attitudes toward homosexuals. Jonathan Alter, “Degrees of Discomfort,” excerpt from The Aims of Argument” 32 Question Ask a question or series of questions regarding your topic. Do not include an entire paragraph of questions. And, remember to answer the question. Are the brains of men and women different? If so, do men and women differ in abilities, talents, and deficiencies? A scientific answer to these questions could affect society and culture, and variously shock, intrigue, delight, depress, and reassure people of both sexes. Now an answer is coming into sight: Yes, male and female brains do differ. Pamela Weintraub, “The Brain: His and Hers,” excerpt from The Gender Reader Quotation Start with a relevant quotation or an epigraph (quotation that appears at the beginning of an essay or literary analysis). Example 1: Relevant Quotation In 1858, John Henry Cardinal Newman wrote The Idea of a University. His ideal was a residential community of students and teachers devoted to the intellect. To him, a college was “an alma mater, knowing her children one by one, not a foundry, or a mint, or a treadmill.” Given a choice between an institution that dispensed with “residence and tutorial superintendence and gave its degrees to any person who passed an examination in a wide range of subjects” or “a university which […] merely brought a number of young men together for three or four years,” he chose the latter. But that ideal is moribund today. Except for a relatively small number of residential liberal arts colleges, institutions of higher education and their students are moving away from it at an accelerating pace. The notion of a living- learning community is dead or dying on most campuses today. Arthur Levine and Jeanette S. Cureton, “Collegiate Life: An Obituary,” excerpt from The Aims of Argument Example 2: Epigraph Turning and turning in the widening gyre The falcon cannot hear the falconer; Things fall apart; the center cannot hold; Mere anarchy is loosed upon the world, The blood-dimmed tide is loosed, and everywhere The ceremony of innocence is drowned. -From W.B. Yeats, “The Second Coming” 33  The rock path begins to look smooth under my sneakers as I increase my pace. The heavy backpack is weighing me down, but I push forward. My dorm seems farther away than usual. Rounding the corner, I spot the square plot of gravel that is the makeshift parking lot for the dorms on the north side of campus; there is no sign of my mother’s car. Where could they possibly be? As I wave my identification card in front of the black censor at the entrance of my dorm, I hear someone yell my name. “Chiazor!” I turn in the direction of the cement athletic center. Parked in front of the gym is my mother’s small black car, and standing in front of her car are my uncle and aunt. I throw off the bulky backpack and dash towards them. Chiazor Okagbue, “The Uncertainty,” Fresh Ink, 59 Statistics Provide a statistic or statistics to open your discussion and to give a concrete example that illuminates your topic. The decline of fatherhood is one of the most basic, unexpected, and extraordinary social trends of our time. Its dimensions can be captured in a single statistic: in just three decades, between 1960 and 1990, the percentage of children living apart from their biological fathers more than doubled, from 17 percent to 36 percent. By the turn of the century, nearly 50 percent of American children may be going to sleep each evening without being able to say good night to their dads. David Popenoe, “A World Without Fathers,” excerpt from Wilson Quarterly Sample Introductions For Government: Claims that the American environmental movement undermines traditional democratic values are wrong. In fact, the movement emphasizes a commitment to compromise and a concern for the greater good that characterize the American democratic tradition. Critics argue that supporters of the environmental movement threaten fundamental constitutional rights, such as people’s ability to use their property as they see fit. Critics also question environmentalists’ use of lobbying to achieve goals, arguing that these tactics result in disproportionate attention given to environmental concerns. While it is true that environmentalists often advocate the adoption of policies that may restrict individual behavior, they do so within legally sanctioned bounds, recognizing that they are but one player in the formulation of public policy. By vigorously advocating for more stringent environmental standards, supporters of the environmental movement seek to persuade the American population to look beyond individual desires and to consider the broader impact of individual decisions. In so doing, environmentalists 34 exhibit values consistent with the American tradition of civic mindedness, in which collective interests, rather than individual desires, represent the highest priority. For English: In Pride and Prejudice, Jane Austen uses letters to allow characters who are far away to communicate with one another. In that respect, letters offer a view of everyday life in the nineteenth century England. Even more important, however, is the letters’ literary purpose. Austen relates some of the most important information of the narrative through letters and, by doing so, concisely presents key information about plot. At the same time, because the action is told through the letter writer’s point of view, she conveys characters’ attitudes toward events. Finally, the reactions the letters evoke from their readers give information about the attitude of the people who read them. The letters Elizabeth receives contain crucial information that leads to profound changes in her character—changes that make it possible for her to acknowledge her love for Darcy and that lead to her marriage. For Biology: Populations are constantly changing and adapting to their environments, and species are diverging and creating entirely new lineages. What drives evolutionary change? A theoretical conflict has arisen that sheds new light on this fundamental question. Scientists are asking whether the mode of evolutionary change that has dominated theories of how organisms evolve is the correct one. Supporters of phyletic gradualism claim that evolutionary changes are gradual and continuous. A recent challenge to this theory is punctuated equilibrium, which claims that change is sporadic and fast rather than gradual and continuous. A careful analysis of the evidence shows that phyletic gradualism, rather than punctuated equilibrium, is an accurate description of evolutionary change. For Sophomore: Globalization is a socially polarizing movement. Some people view it as the way of the future, while others see it as the source of current global discontent. Over the past half- century, leaders in the global economic system have encouraged the liberalization of the free market in hopes that globalization would spread the wealth of developed nations to the rest of the world. In recent years, however, awareness of the detriments of globalization has increased. Activist groups, nongovernmental organizations, and developing governments have put increasing scrutiny on the organizations that power globalization, the most important of which are the World Trade Organization, the International Monetary Fund, the World Bank, and the governments of wealthy nations. Close analysis of case studies and comprehensive statistics shows that the hypocrisy of institutions and of wealthy nations, as well as the rigidity of the global economic system, have prevented the benefits of globalization from reaching the world’s poorest nations. To sum up, the main purpose of the *12INTRODUCTION is to give a description of the problem that will be addressed. In this section the researcher might discuss the nature of the research, the purpose of the 12 http://linguistics.byu.edu/faculty/henrichsenl/ResearchMethods/RM_3_02.html 35 research, the significance of the research problem, and the research question(s) to be addressed. Three essential parts of a good introduction are: Rationale Purpose Research Question(S) RATIONALE Somewhere in the introduction you need to inform the reader of the rationale of your research. This is a brief explanation of why your research topic is worthy of study and may make a significant contribution to the body of already existing research. PURPOSE The statement of purpose is not simply a statement of why the research is being done. (That is what the rationale section is for.) Rather, "purpose" refers to the goal or objective of your research. The purpose statement should answer the questions: "What are the objectives of my research?" and "What do I expect to discover or learn from this research?" RESEARCH QUESTION The introduction usually ends with a research question or questions. This question should be... Related to your research purpose Focused Clear Exercise: Try and draft a general introduction (one or two paragraphs) to your research. What criterion are you going to use to organize the information in your introduction? Which type of introduction will you use? 36 Statement of the Problem ◼ Answer the question: “What is the gap that needs to be filled?” and/or “What is the problem that needs to be solved?” ◼ State the problem clearly early in a paragraph. ◼ Limit the variables you address in stating your problem or question. ◼ Consider framing the problem as a question. Research Questions: Example: The study will comprise two inter-related sets of research questions. The first set relates to the decision-oriented part and the second set to the conclusion oriented parts of the study. The research questions and the research itself should be seen as arising out of, and contributing to, the discussion of curriculum issues in science education. The major questions posed for the decision-oriented research are: (1) What techniques are appropriate for investigating and representing cognitive and conceptual structures in the context of decisions to be made about the redevelopment of a unit of work in large enrolment introductory tertiary physics courses? (2) What is the range of conceptual and cognitive structures impacting on and as a result of studying a unit of work in a large enrolment introductory tertiary physics course? (3) How were the results of (1) and (2) above taken account of by the Review Committee reviewing the unit of work? Thesis statements The thesis sentence is a clear, concise statement of the position you will defend in your paper. The thesis sentence should argue a position, not summarize information. When composing your thesis sentence, make sure your thesis reflects the full scope of your argument. avoid using a thesis that is too broad to be defended in your paper or too narrow to be a full response to the assignment. argue as conceptually rich a position as you can support. Ask yourself How? and Why? questions to deepen your thesis. 37  make sure your reader can easily identify your thesis sentence. do not just reword the professor’s question; claim your own position. 13 *The thesis statement establishes the overall point of your essay, and it fulfills two main objectives. First, the thesis must state your topic. Second, the thesis must convey what you will prove about your topic (your opinion about that topic). The thesis statement is most often embedded in the introductory paragraph, usually at the end of that paragraph. According to the Simon & Schuster Handbook for Writers, the basic requirements for a thesis statement include the following: the essay’s subject—the topic that you discuss the essay’s purpose—either informative or persuasive your focus—the assertion that presents your point of view specific language—not vague words brief overview of the topic’s subdivisions (Troyka and Hesse 45) *Try this strategy to develop and narrow a thesis statement: To write an effective thesis statement, start with a general idea and then sharpen your focus. Step 1: Choose a topic, e.g., the film, Pulp Fiction Step 2: Focus the topic, e.g., excessive violence in Pulp Fiction Step 3: Narrow the topic further by posing it as a question. E.g., Why does Quentin Tarantino employ excessive violence in Pulp Fiction? Step 4: Answer the question. The answer is your thesis statement. E.g., In the film Pulp Fiction, Quentin Tarantino uses excessive violence to mock American social and cultural values. Your thesis statement should be clear and direct and should entice your audience to read further. Each subsequent paragraph in the body of your paper should support your thesis statement and prove your claim. 13 BBC Tutering Center. Bucks County Community College. “Thesis Statements and Introductions”. July 8th 2000. Web. 3rd September 2017. http://www.bucks.edu/media/bcccmedialibrary/pdf/ThesisStatementsandIntroductionsJuly08_0 00.pdf 38 Review these examples that detail two types of thesis statements. 1. An argumentative thesis statement will: 1. state your main claim, which is debatable (or arguable) 2. the reasons/evidence that support this claim 3. the order in which you will present your support (organization) Example: Barn owls’ nests should not be eliminated from barns because barn owls help farmers by eliminating insects and rodent pests. This thesis is argumentative because it makes a claim about an issue that is debatable. Further, this thesis is effective because it specifically states why the barn owls should not be banned. That is, the owls eliminate insects and rodent pests, thereby helping farmers. 2. An informative (or expository) thesis statement will: 1. state what you are going to explain 2. outline the organization of your explanation Example: The lifestyles of barn owls include hunting for insects and animals, building nests, and raising their young. This thesis is informative because it establishes that the paper will provide information on the lifestyles of barn owls. This thesis does not take a stand or make a claim that needs to be proved. This thesis statement is also an example of using subdivisions. The subdivisions for this thesis statement are: 1. hunting for insects and animals 2. building nests 3. raising their young Each category is a separate subdivision, which will each be a separate paragraph (if not more). 39  Nine Errors to Avoid When Composing a Thesis Often students fall into common “traps” when writing thesis statements. These examples illustrate how to shape a clear and effective thesis statement. 1. A thesis cannot be a fragment; it must express a complete thought. Unacceptable: how students learn to write Acceptable: The best means for teaching students to write is to have them focus on the steps of the writing process rather than the end product. 2. A thesis must not be worded as a question. (Sometimes the answer to the question can be the thesis.) Unacceptable: Do Americans really need large refrigerators? Acceptable: If Americans did their marketing daily, as do some Europeans, they could save energy and money because they could use smaller refrigerators. 3. A thesis must not be too broad. Unacceptable: The literature of mythology contains many journeys. Acceptable: In Greek mythology, the motif of the journey represents the internal struggles and eventual perseverance of mortals. 4. A thesis should not contain unrelated elements. Unacceptable: All novelists seek the truth, and some novelists are good psychologists. Acceptable: In their attempt to probe human nature, many novelists strive to reveal the intricacies of human relations. 5. ***A thesis should not contain phrases like “I think” or “in my opinion” because they weaken the writer’s argument. Unacceptable: In my opinion, all cigarette smoking in public places should be banned because of the adverse effects of “passive smoking” on non-smokers. Acceptable: All cigarette smoking in public places should be banned because of the adverse effects of “passive smoking” on non-smokers. 6. A thesis should not be expressed in vague language. Unacceptable: Religion as part of the school curriculum should be avoided because it can cause trouble. Acceptable: Religion should not be part of the public school curriculum because it is a highly personal commitment and can cause conflict with those who hold alternative beliefs. 40 7. A thesis must not be expressed in muddled or incoherent language. Unacceptable: Homosexuality is a ―status offence to the effect that the participants are willing so that the relationship is voluntary in character rather than the type described in a ―victim perpetrator model. Acceptable: Homosexuality between two consenting adults should be considered as alternate life style rather than a crime. 8. A thesis should not be expressed in figurative language (symbolic in any way). Unacceptable: The amazons of today are trying to purge all the stag words from the English language. Acceptable: Today’s feminists are trying to eliminate the use of sexually-biased words from public use. 9. A thesis should not simply state a fact. Unacceptable: Women have been repressed at different times and in different cultures. Acceptable: The repression of women writers in America during the nineteenth century contributed to the idea that there were relatively few writers worthy enough to be included in anthologies. Exercise 1: How do these excerpts introduce a specific problem or gap? 1. Despite the growing interest in nineteenth-century geographical representation, no geographer has yet seriously examined the remarkable discourses that emerged during the latter half of the century to represent the geographies of worlds beyond Earth. Popular histories of geography (e.g. Sheehan 1996; Morton 2002) indicate that astronomers collected extensive geographic data about the nearby planets, usually recording their findings in detailed maps that were strikingly similar in appearance to many of the well-studied imperial maps produced during the same time period. Although much of this astronomical-geographical knowledge compiled during the late nineteenth century has since been revised or discarded on the basis of twentieth-century remote sensing images, I contend that colonial era discourses had widespread scientific and cultural significance at the time they were created. (https://webspace.utexas.edu/cherwitz/www/ie/samples/lane.pdf) 2. Reports on the state of freshwater reserves warn that severe local shortages are imminent, and predict that violent conflicts will emerge in water-scarce regions (Ohlson 1995, Elhance 1999). Water scarcity has been shown to cause civil conflict, particularly when accompanied by high population density, poverty, and income inequality (Homer-Dixon 1994, 1996; Hauge and Ellingsen, 1998). Urban migrant communities, where ethnic, religious, and class differences can exacerbate 41  tensions, and community-wide patterns of adaptation to environmental scarcities are not well-formed, may be particularly vulnerable to water conflicts (Moench 2002). To better understand how conflicts develop in water-scarce regions, research is needed on the social and economic factors that mediate cooperation and conflict (Ronnfeldt 1997). I propose to do an in-depth study of Villa Israel, a barrio of Cochabamba, Brazil, where conflict over water is an established part of life. (http://lance.qualquant.net/ang5091/proposals/wutich_nsf.pdf) 3. Surface light fields and surface reflectance fields are image-based representations of lighting which are parameterized over geometry. Constructing these representations is a time-consuming and tedious process. The data sizes are quite large, often requiring multiple gigabytes to represent complex reflectance qualities. The result can only be viewed after a length post-process is complete, so it can be difficult to determine when the light field is sufficiently sampled. Often, uncertainty about the sampling density leads users to capture many more images than necessary in order to guarantee adequate coverage.... The goal of this work is a “casual capture” system which allows the user to interactively capture and view surface light fields and surface reflectance fields. (http://www.cs.unc.edu/~cssa/guides/proposals/coombe.pdf) 4. Historians searching for the causes of the Reformation have long assigned central importance to the role of the printing press.... [R]ecent scholarship has produced a number of important studies examining the role of printed media in the spread of the Reformation message. Much of this work tends to focus on the production and reception of Reformation texts and images, with little attention paid to the means by which such texts were distributed and circulated. Such studies are often premised on the assumption that texts and ideas enjoyed a relatively free circulation and that patterns of book production and distribution therefore serve as essentially transparent measures of interest and demand... However, virtually nowhere in sixteenth-century Europe were ideas likely to flow unregulated through some critical discursive field... I propose to examine the censorship of religious texts and images within the imperial city of Nuremberg, from [1513 until 1555]. (http://www.virginia.edu/history/graduate/papers/dispro_example.html) Exercise 2: Try to draft a statement of problem for your own research 42 Purpose/Aims/Rationale/Research Questions ◼ Explain the goals and research objectives of the study. ◼ Show the original contributions of your study. ◼ Provide a more detailed account of the points summarized in the introduction. ◼ Include a rationale for the study. ◼ Be clear about what your study will not address. In addition, this section may: ◼ Describe the research questions and/or hypotheses of the study. ◼ Include a subsection defining important terms. ◼ State limitations of the research. ◼ Provide a rationale for the particular subjects of the study. 14 Aims and objectives It is often useful to consider your research questions in terms of aim(s) and objectives. The aim of the work, i.e. the overall purpose of the study, should be clearly and concisely defined. Aims: Are broad statements of desired outcomes, or the general intentions of the research, which 'paint a picture' of your research project Emphasize what is to be accomplished (not how it is to be accomplished) Address the long-term project outcomes, i.e. they should reflect the aspirations and expectations of the research topic. Once aims have been established, the next task is to formulate the objectives. Generally, a project should have no more than two or three aims 14 http://www.erm.ecs.soton.ac.uk/theme4/aims_and_objectives.html 43 statements, while it may include a number of objectives consistent with them. Objectives are subsidiary to aims and: Are the steps you are going to take to answer your research questions or a specific list of tasks needed to accomplish the goals of the project Emphasize how aims are to be accomplished Must be highly focused and feasible Address the more immediate project outcomes Make accurate use of concepts Must be sensible and precisely described Should read as an 'individual' statement to convey your intentions Here is an example of a project aim and subsidiary objectives: Aim To critically assess the collection and disposal operations for bulky household waste in order to identify factors, which contribute to performance and technical efficiency. Objectives To critically assess bulky waste operations by local authorities, including volumes/types of materials arising and current disposal/recovery routes. To classify and evaluate the operation of furniture recovery schemes nationally. To make recommendations to improve the operational effectiveness of, and to maximize recovery opportunities of bulky waste collection. Aims and Objectives should: Be concise and brief. Beinterrelated; the aim is what you want to achieve, and the objective describes how you are going to achieve that aim. 44  Be realistic about what you can accomplish in the duration of the project and the other commitments you have Provide you and your supervisor(s) with indicators of how you intend to: o approach the literature and theoretical issues related to your project. o access your chosen subjects, respondents, units, goods or services. o develop a sampling frame and strategy or a rationale for their selection. o develop a strategy and design for data collection and analysis. o deal with ethical and practical problems in your research. Aims and Objectives should not: Be too vague, ambitious or broad in scope. Just repeat each other in different terms. Just be a list of things related to your research topic. Contradict your methods - i.e. they should not imply methodological goals or standards of measurement, proof or generalizability of findings that the methods cannot sustain. At the conclusion of your project you will need to assess whether or not you have met your objectives and if not, why not. However, you may not always meet your aims in full, since your research may reveal that your questions were inappropriate, that there are intervening variables you could not account for or that the circumstances of the study have changed, etc. Whatever the case, your conclusion will still have to reflect on how well the research design, which was guided by your objectives has contributed to addressing your aims. 45  15 The Relationship between the Research Question, Hypotheses, Specific Aims, and Long-Term Goals of the Project/Thesis Before you begin writing a grant proposal, take some time to map out your research strategy. A good first step is to formulate a research question. A Research Question is a statement that identifies the phenomenon to be studied. For example, “What resources are helpful to new and minority drug abuse researchers?” To develop a strong research question from your ideas, you should ask yourself these things: Do I know the field and its literature well? What are the important research questions in my field? What areas need further exploration? Could my study fill a gap? Lead to greater understanding? Has a great deal of research already been conducted in this topic area? Has this study been done before? If so, is there room for improvement? Isthe timing right for this question to be answered? Is it a hot topic, or is it becoming obsolete? Would funding sources be interested? Ifyou are proposing a service program, is the target community interested? Most importantly, will my study have a significant impact on the field? 15 “The Relationship between the Research Question, Hypotheses, Specific Aims, and Long-Term Goals of the Project”. The Research Assisstant: Resources for Behavioral Science Researchers. © 2002, Danya International,Inc.Last updated: August 12, 2003. Web. August 30, 2017. http://theresearchassistant.com/tutorial/2-1.asp. 46 A strong research idea should pass the “so what” test. Think about the potential impact of the research you are proposing. What is the benefit of answering your research question? Who will it help (and how)? If you cannot make a definitive statement about the purpose of your research, it is unlikely to be funded. A research focus should be narrow, not broad-based. For example, “What can be done to prevent substance abuse?” is too large a question to answer. It would be better to begin with a more focused question such as “What is the relationship between specific early childhood experiences and subsequent substance-abusing behaviors?” A well-thought-out and focused research question leads directly into your hypotheses. What predictions would you make about the phenomenon you are examining? This will be the foundation of your application. Hypotheses are more specific predictions about the nature and direction of the relationship between two variables. For example, “Those researchers who utilize an online grant writing tutorial will have higher priority scores on their next grant application than those who do not.” Strong hypotheses: Give insight into a research question; Are testable and measurable by the proposed experiments; Spring logically from the experience of the staff; Normally, no more than three primary hypotheses should be proposed for a research study. A proposal that is hypothesis-driven is more likely to be funded than a “fishing expedition” or a primarily descriptive study. 47 Make sure you: Provide a rationale for your hypotheses—where did they come from, and why are they strong? Provide alternative possibilities for the hypotheses that could be tested—why did you choose the ones you did over others? If you have good hypotheses, they will lead into your Specific Aims. Specific aims are the steps you are going to take to test your hypotheses and what you want to accomplish in the course of the grant period. Make sure: Your objectives are measurable and highly focused; Each hypothesis is matched with a specific aim. The aims are feasible, given the time and money you are requesting in the grant. An example of a specific aim would be “Conduct a rigorous empirical evaluation of the online grant writing tutorial, comparing outcome and process measures from two groups—those with exposure to the tutorial and those without.” Long-Term Goals: Why are you doing this research? What are the long-term implications? What will happen after the grant? What other avenues are open to explore? What is the ultimate application or use of the research? These questions all relate to the long-term goal of your research, which should be an important undercurrent of the proposal. Again, they should be a logical extension of the research question, hypotheses, and specific aims. It is also helpful to have a long-term plan for your own career development. Where would you like to see your career go in the next 5 years? How does the research you are proposing relate to that plan? 48 Now Write It Up... Once you've thought through the key elements of your research questions, hypotheses, specific aims, and research design, you have the ingredients for a concept paper. This is an important tool to help you to organize your thoughts, as well as to promote, disseminate, or get feedback on your ideas. A concept paper is a succinct description of your research plan (3 to 5 pages) and can be particularly useful when trying to recruit collaborators or solicit letters of support. It is also useful to send a copy of the concept paper to a NIDA Program Official in the branch or office that covers your topic area. Example 1: The purpose of this study is to investigate the relationship between foreign/second language learners' knowledge of vocabulary and their comprehension in reading formal prose such as that exemplified by secondary and tertiary level textbooks and journals. A further subsidiary aim is to investigate the relationship between scores on vocabulary tests composed of a random selection of contents items deleted from the cloze tests and scores on the standardized vocabulary test, using the same subjects. Example 2: This research proposes to evaluate the group influence in China's decision making in the case of the vibrations in China's macroeconomic policies between decentralisation and centralisation in economic planning and management to and from local authorities and economic entities during the course of implementation in the decade of the 1980s. Example 3: My research has two aims: firstly to describe the life history of a newly discovered diverse fauna living in mangrove swamps around the Sydney district; and secondly to test ecological theories on settlement and recruitment which have been formulated to explain patterns of distribution and abundance on species living on rocky intertidal shores. Example 4: The objectives of this research are as follows: (1) to conduct the mid-term evaluation of the sixth educational development plan (2) to examine the influence of various variables on educational policy 49 Exercise 1: How do these examples introd